Which of the following options correctly describe hydrogen and methane fuels? select all that apply.

Main article: Timeline of hydrogen technologies

The first references to hydrogen fuel cells appeared in 1838. In a letter dated October 1838 but published in the December 1838 edition of The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, Welsh physicist and barrister Sir William Grove wrote about the development of his first crude fuel cells. He used a combination of sheet iron, copper and porcelain plates, and a solution of sulphate of copper and dilute acid.[6][7] In a letter to the same publication written in December 1838 but published in June 1839, German physicist Christian Friedrich Schönbein discussed the first crude fuel cell that he had invented. His letter discussed current generated from hydrogen and oxygen dissolved in water.[8] Grove later sketched his design, in 1842, in the same journal. The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today's phosphoric acid fuel cell.[9][10]

In 1932, Francis Thomas Bacon invented a fuel cell which derived power from hydrogen and oxygen. This was used by NASA to power lights, air-conditioning and communications.

The Brits who bolstered the Moon landings, BBC Archives.[11]

In 1932, English engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell.[11] The alkaline fuel cell (AFC), also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its inventor, is one of the most developed fuel cell technologies, which NASA has used since the mid-1960s.[11][12]

In 1955, W. Thomas Grubb, a chemist working for the General Electric Company (GE), further modified the original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as the electrolyte. Three years later another GE chemist, Leonard Niedrach, devised a way of depositing platinum onto the membrane, which served as catalyst for the necessary hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction reactions. This became known as the "Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell".[13][14] GE went on to develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft, leading to its use during Project Gemini. This was the first commercial use of a fuel cell. In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers, which was demonstrated across the U.S. at state fairs. This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants. Later in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering a welding machine. In the 1960s, Pratt & Whitney licensed Bacon's U.S. patents for use in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks). In 1991, the first hydrogen fuel cell automobile was developed by Roger Billings.[15][16]

UTC Power was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a co-generation power plant in hospitals, universities and large office buildings.[17]

In recognition of the fuel cell industry and America's role in fuel cell development, the US Senate recognized 8 October 2015 as National Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Day, passing S. RES 217. The date was chosen in recognition of the atomic weight of hydrogen (1.008).[18]

Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner. They are made up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode. Two chemical reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different segments. The net result of the two reactions is that fuel is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is created, which can be used to power electrical devices, normally referred to as the load.

At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel, usually hydrogen, turning the fuel into a positively charged ion and a negatively charged electron. The electrolyte is a substance specifically designed so ions can pass through it, but the electrons cannot. The freed electrons travel through a wire creating the electric current. The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. Once reaching the cathode, the ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third chemical, usually oxygen, to create water or carbon dioxide.

Design features in a fuel cell include:

• The electrolyte substance, which usually defines the type of fuel cell, and can be made from a number of substances like potassium hydroxide, salt carbonates, and phosphoric acid.[19]
• The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen.
• The anode catalyst, usually fine platinum powder, breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions.
• The cathode catalyst, often nickel, converts ions into waste chemicals, with water being the most common type of waste.[20]
• Gas diffusion layers that are designed to resist oxidization.[20]

A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors:

• Activation loss
• Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections)
• Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of voltage).[21]

To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series to yield higher voltage, and in parallel to allow a higher current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. The cell surface area can also be increased, to allow higher current from each cell.

Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells

Main article: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell

In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) design, a proton-conducting polymer membrane (typically nafion) contains the electrolyte solution that separates the anode and cathode sides.[25][26] This was called a solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell (SPEFC) in the early 1970s, before the proton-exchange mechanism was well understood. (Notice that the synonyms polymer electrolyte membrane and proton-exchange mechanism result in the same acronym.)

On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and electrons. These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become what are commonly referred to as multi-facilitated proton membranes. The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water.

In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel, methanol (see: direct-methanol fuel cells and indirect methanol fuel cells) and chemical hydrides. The waste products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water. When hydrogen is used, the CO2 is released when methane from natural gas is combined with steam, in a process called steam methane reforming, to produce the hydrogen. This can take place in a different location to the fuel cell, potentially allowing the hydrogen fuel cell to be used indoors—for example, in fork lifts.

The different components of a PEMFC are

1. bipolar plates,
2. electrodes,
3. catalyst,
4. membrane, and
5. the necessary hardware such as current collectors and gaskets.[27]

The materials used for different parts of the fuel cells differ by type. The bipolar plates may be made of different types of materials, such as, metal, coated metal, graphite, flexible graphite, C–C composite, carbon–polymer composites etc.[28] The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) is referred to as the heart of the PEMFC and is usually made of a proton-exchange membrane sandwiched between two catalyst-coated carbon papers. Platinum and/or similar type of noble metals are usually used as the catalyst for PEMFC, and these can be contaminated by carbon monoxide, necessitating a relatively pure hydrogen fuel.[29] The electrolyte could be a polymer membrane.

Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell design issues

Phosphoric acid fuel cell

Main article: Phosphoric acid fuel cell

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) were first designed and introduced in 1961 by G. V. Elmore and H. A. Tanner. In these cells phosphoric acid is used as a non-conductive electrolyte to pass positive hydrogen ions from the anode to the cathode. These cells commonly work in temperatures of 150 to 200 degrees Celsius. This high temperature will cause heat and energy loss if the heat is not removed and used properly. This heat can be used to produce steam for air conditioning systems or any other thermal energy consuming system.[38] Using this heat in cogeneration can enhance the efficiency of phosphoric acid fuel cells from 40 to 50% to about 80%.[38] Phosphoric acid, the electrolyte used in PAFCs, is a non-conductive liquid acid which forces electrons to travel from anode to cathode through an external electrical circuit. Since the hydrogen ion production rate on the anode is small, platinum is used as catalyst to increase this ionization rate. A key disadvantage of these cells is the use of an acidic electrolyte. This increases the corrosion or oxidation of components exposed to phosphoric acid.[39]

Solid acid fuel cell

Main article: Solid acid fuel cell

Solid acid fuel cells (SAFCs) are characterized by the use of a solid acid material as the electrolyte. At low temperatures, solid acids have an ordered molecular structure like most salts. At warmer temperatures (between 140 and 150 °C for CsHSO4), some solid acids undergo a phase transition to become highly disordered "superprotonic" structures, which increases conductivity by several orders of magnitude. The first proof-of-concept SAFCs were developed in 2000 using cesium hydrogen sulfate (CsHSO4).[40] Current SAFC systems use cesium dihydrogen phosphate (CsH2PO4) and have demonstrated lifetimes in the thousands of hours.[41]

Alkaline fuel cell

Main articles: Alkaline fuel cell and Alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cell

The alkaline fuel cell (AFC) or hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell was designed and first demonstrated publicly by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1959. It was used as a primary source of electrical energy in the Apollo space program.[42] The cell consists of two porous carbon electrodes impregnated with a suitable catalyst such as Pt, Ag, CoO, etc. The space between the two electrodes is filled with a concentrated solution of KOH or NaOH which serves as an electrolyte. H2 gas and O2 gas are bubbled into the electrolyte through the porous carbon electrodes. Thus the overall reaction involves the combination of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water. The cell runs continuously until the reactant's supply is exhausted. This type of cell operates efficiently in the temperature range 343–413 K and provides a potential of about 0.9 V.[43] Alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cell (AAEMFC) is a type of AFC which employs a solid polymer electrolyte instead of aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH) and it is superior to aqueous AFC.

High-temperature fuel cells

Solid oxide fuel cell

Main article: Solid oxide fuel cell

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a solid material, most commonly a ceramic material called yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), as the electrolyte. Because SOFCs are made entirely of solid materials, they are not limited to the flat plane configuration of other types of fuel cells and are often designed as rolled tubes. They require high operating temperatures (800–1000 °C) and can be run on a variety of fuels including natural gas.[5]

SOFCs are unique since in those, negatively charged oxygen ions travel from the cathode (positive side of the fuel cell) to the anode (negative side of the fuel cell) instead of positively charged hydrogen ions travelling from the anode to the cathode, as is the case in all other types of fuel cells. Oxygen gas is fed through the cathode, where it absorbs electrons to create oxygen ions. The oxygen ions then travel through the electrolyte to react with hydrogen gas at the anode. The reaction at the anode produces electricity and water as by-products. Carbon dioxide may also be a by-product depending on the fuel, but the carbon emissions from an SOFC system are less than those from a fossil fuel combustion plant.[44] The chemical reactions for the SOFC system can be expressed as follows:[45]

SOFC systems can run on fuels other than pure hydrogen gas. However, since hydrogen is necessary for the reactions listed above, the fuel selected must contain hydrogen atoms. For the fuel cell to operate, the fuel must be converted into pure hydrogen gas. SOFCs are capable of internally reforming light hydrocarbons such as methane (natural gas),[46] propane and butane.[47] These fuel cells are at an early stage of development.[48]

Challenges exist in SOFC systems due to their high operating temperatures. One such challenge is the potential for carbon dust to build up on the anode, which slows down the internal reforming process. Research to address this "carbon coking" issue at the University of Pennsylvania has shown that the use of copper-based cermet (heat-resistant materials made of ceramic and metal) can reduce coking and the loss of performance.[49] Another disadvantage of SOFC systems is slow start-up time, making SOFCs less useful for mobile applications. Despite these disadvantages, a high operating temperature provides an advantage by removing the need for a precious metal catalyst like platinum, thereby reducing cost. Additionally, waste heat from SOFC systems may be captured and reused, increasing the theoretical overall efficiency to as high as 80–85%.[5]

The high operating temperature is largely due to the physical properties of the YSZ electrolyte. As temperature decreases, so does the ionic conductivity of YSZ. Therefore, to obtain optimum performance of the fuel cell, a high operating temperature is required. According to their website, Ceres Power, a UK SOFC fuel cell manufacturer, has developed a method of reducing the operating temperature of their SOFC system to 500–600 degrees Celsius. They replaced the commonly used YSZ electrolyte with a CGO (cerium gadolinium oxide) electrolyte. The lower operating temperature allows them to use stainless steel instead of ceramic as the cell substrate, which reduces cost and start-up time of the system.[50]

Molten-carbonate fuel cell

Main article: Molten carbonate fuel cell

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) require a high operating temperature, 650 °C (1,200 °F), similar to SOFCs. MCFCs use lithium potassium carbonate salt as an electrolyte, and this salt liquefies at high temperatures, allowing for the movement of charge within the cell – in this case, negative carbonate ions.[51]

Like SOFCs, MCFCs are capable of converting fossil fuel to a hydrogen-rich gas in the anode, eliminating the need to produce hydrogen externally. The reforming process creates CO2 emissions. MCFC-compatible fuels include natural gas, biogas and gas produced from coal. The hydrogen in the gas reacts with carbonate ions from the electrolyte to produce water, carbon dioxide, electrons and small amounts of other chemicals. The electrons travel through an external circuit creating electricity and return to the cathode. There, oxygen from the air and carbon dioxide recycled from the anode react with the electrons to form carbonate ions that replenish the electrolyte, completing the circuit.[51] The chemical reactions for an MCFC system can be expressed as follows:[52]

As with SOFCs, MCFC disadvantages include slow start-up times because of their high operating temperature. This makes MCFC systems not suitable for mobile applications, and this technology will most likely be used for stationary fuel cell purposes. The main challenge of MCFC technology is the cells' short life span. The high-temperature and carbonate electrolyte lead to corrosion of the anode and cathode. These factors accelerate the degradation of MCFC components, decreasing the durability and cell life. Researchers are addressing this problem by exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that may increase cell life without decreasing performance.[5]

MCFCs hold several advantages over other fuel cell technologies, including their resistance to impurities. They are not prone to "carbon coking", which refers to carbon build-up on the anode that results in reduced performance by slowing down the internal fuel reforming process. Therefore, carbon-rich fuels like gases made from coal are compatible with the system. The United States Department of Energy claims that coal, itself, might even be a fuel option in the future, assuming the system can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal into hydrogen.[5] MCFCs also have relatively high efficiencies. They can reach a fuel-to-electricity efficiency of 50%, considerably higher than the 37–42% efficiency of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. Efficiencies can be as high as 65% when the fuel cell is paired with a turbine, and 85% if heat is captured and used in a combined heat and power (CHP) system.[51]

FuelCell Energy, a Connecticut-based fuel cell manufacturer, develops and sells MCFC fuel cells. The company says that their MCFC products range from 300 kW to 2.8 MW systems that achieve 47% electrical efficiency and can utilize CHP technology to obtain higher overall efficiencies. One product, the DFC-ERG, is combined with a gas turbine and, according to the company, it achieves an electrical efficiency of 65%.[53]

Electric storage fuel cell

The electric storage fuel cell is a conventional battery chargeable by electric power input, using the conventional electro-chemical effect. However, the battery further includes hydrogen (and oxygen) inputs for alternatively charging the battery chemically.[54]

Comparison of fuel cell types

Glossary of terms in table:

Further information: glossary of fuel cell terms

The energy efficiency of a system or device that converts energy is measured by the ratio of the amount of useful energy put out by the system ("output energy") to the total amount of energy that is put in ("input energy") or by useful output energy as a percentage of the total input energy. In the case of fuel cells, useful output energy is measured in electrical energy produced by the system. Input energy is the energy stored in the fuel. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, fuel cells are generally between 40 and 60% energy efficient.[63] This is higher than some other systems for energy generation. For example, the typical internal combustion engine of a car is about 25% energy efficient.[64] Steam power plants usually achieve efficiencies of 30-40%[65] while combined cycle gas turbine and steam plants can achieve efficiencies as high as 60%.[citation needed] In combined heat and power (CHP) systems, the waste heat produced by the primary power cycle - whether fuel cell, nuclear fission or combustion - is captured and put to use, increasing the efficiency of the system to up to 85–90%.[5]

The theoretical maximum efficiency of any type of power generation system is never reached in practice, and it does not consider other steps in power generation, such as production, transportation and storage of fuel and conversion of the electricity into mechanical power. However, this calculation allows the comparison of different types of power generation. The theoretical maximum efficiency of a fuel cell approaches 100%,[66] while the theoretical maximum efficiency of internal combustion engines is approximately 58%.[67]

In practice

In a fuel cell vehicle the tank-to-wheel efficiency is greater than 45% at low loads[68] and shows average values of about 36% when a driving cycle like the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) is used as test procedure.[69] The comparable NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22%. In 2008 Honda released a demonstration fuel cell electric vehicle (the Honda FCX Clarity) with fuel stack claiming a 60% tank-to-wheel efficiency.[70]

It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account. Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen.[71] Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery,[72] except as hydrogen, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power, they are combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system. As of 2019, 90% of hydrogen was used for oil refining, chemicals and fertilizer production (where hydrogen is required for the Haber-Bosch process), and 98% of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming, which emits carbon dioxide.[73] The overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known as round-trip efficiency), using pure hydrogen and pure oxygen can be "from 35 up to 50 percent", depending on gas density and other conditions.[74] The electrolyzer/fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore suited for long-term storage.

Solid-oxide fuel cells produce heat from the recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen. The ceramic can run as hot as 800 degrees Celsius. This heat can be captured and used to heat water in a micro combined heat and power (m-CHP) application. When the heat is captured, total efficiency can reach 80–90% at the unit, but does not consider production and distribution losses. CHP units are being developed today for the European home market.

Professor Jeremy P. Meyers, in the Electrochemical Society journal Interface in 2008, wrote, "While fuel cells are efficient relative to combustion engines, they are not as efficient as batteries, primarily due to the inefficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction (and ... the oxygen evolution reaction, should the hydrogen be formed by electrolysis of water).... [T]hey make the most sense for operation disconnected from the grid, or when fuel can be provided continuously. For applications that require frequent and relatively rapid start-ups ... where zero emissions are a requirement, as in enclosed spaces such as warehouses, and where hydrogen is considered an acceptable reactant, a [PEM fuel cell] is becoming an increasingly attractive choice [if exchanging batteries is inconvenient]".[75] In 2013 military organizations were evaluating fuel cells to determine if they could significantly reduce the battery weight carried by soldiers.[76]

Stationary fuel cells are used for commercial, industrial and residential primary and backup power generation. Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, communications centers, rural locations including research stations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability.[77] This equates to less than one minute of downtime in a six-year period.[77]

Since fuel cell electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example.[78] There are many different types of stationary fuel cells so efficiencies vary, but most are between 40% and 60% energy efficient.[5] However, when the fuel cell's waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85%.[5] This is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants, which are only about one third energy efficient.[79] Assuming production at scale, fuel cells could save 20–40% on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems.[80] Fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation; a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution (other than CO2) for every 1,000 kW·h produced, compared to 25 pounds of pollutants generated by conventional combustion systems.[81] Fuel Cells also produce 97% less nitrogen oxide emissions than conventional coal-fired power plants.

One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative[82] has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer, which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500-U.S.-gallon (1,900 L) tank at 200 pounds per square inch (1,400 kPa), and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence. Another closed system loop was unveiled in late 2011 in Hempstead, NY.[83]

Fuel cells can be used with low-quality gas from landfills or waste-water treatment plants to generate power and lower methane emissions. A 2.8 MW fuel cell plant in California is said to be the largest of the type.[84] Small-scale (sub-5kWhr) fuel cells are being developed for use in residential off-grid deployment.[85]

Cogeneration

Combined heat and power (CHP) fuel cell systems, including micro combined heat and power (MicroCHP) systems are used to generate both electricity and heat for homes (see home fuel cell), office building and factories. The system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat. As the result CHP systems have the potential to save primary energy as they can make use of waste heat which is generally rejected by thermal energy conversion systems.[86] A typical capacity range of home fuel cell is 1–3 kWel, 4–8 kWth.[87][88] CHP systems linked to absorption chillers use their waste heat for refrigeration.[89]

The waste heat from fuel cells can be diverted during the summer directly into the ground providing further cooling while the waste heat during winter can be pumped directly into the building. The University of Minnesota owns the patent rights to this type of system[90][91]

Co-generation systems can reach 85% efficiency (40–60% electric and the remainder as thermal).[5] Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90%.[92][93] Molten carbonate (MCFC) and solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are also used for combined heat and power generation and have electrical energy efficiencies around 60%.[94] Disadvantages of co-generation systems include slow ramping up and down rates, high cost and short lifetime.[95][96] Also their need to have a hot water storage tank to smooth out the thermal heat production was a serious disadvantage in the domestic market place where space in domestic properties is at a great premium.[97]

Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the fuel cell micro-combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012.[76] The Japanese ENE FARM project stated that 34.213 PEMFC and 2.224 SOFC were installed in the period 2012–2014, 30,000 units on LNG and 6,000 on LPG.[98]

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)

Main articles: Fuel cell vehicle, Hydrogen vehicle, and List of fuel cell vehicles

Automobiles

By year-end 2019, about 18,000 FCEVs had been leased or sold worldwide.[99][100] Three fuel cell electric vehicles have been introduced for commercial lease and sale: the Honda Clarity, Toyota Mirai and the Hyundai ix35 FCEV. Additional demonstration models include the Honda FCX Clarity, and Mercedes-Benz F-Cell.[101] As of June 2011 demonstration FCEVs had driven more than 4,800,000 km (3,000,000 mi), with more than 27,000 refuelings.[102] Fuel cell electric vehicles feature an average range of 314 miles between refuelings.[103] They can be refueled in less than 5 minutes.[104] The U.S. Department of Energy's Fuel Cell Technology Program states that, as of 2011, fuel cells achieved 53–59% efficiency at one-quarter power and 42–53% vehicle efficiency at full power,[105] and a durability of over 120,000 km (75,000 mi) with less than 10% degradation.[106] In a 2017 Well-to-Wheels simulation analysis that "did not address the economics and market constraints", General Motors and its partners estimated that per mile traveled, a fuel cell electric vehicle running on compressed gaseous hydrogen produced from natural gas could use about 40% less energy and emit 45% less greenhouse gasses than an internal combustion vehicle.[107]

In 2015, Toyota introduced its first fuel cell vehicle, the Mirai, at a price of $57,000.[108] Hyundai introduced the limited production Hyundai ix35 FCEV under a lease agreement.[109] In 2016, Honda started leasing the Honda Clarity Fuel Cell.[110] In 2020, Toyota introduced the second generation of its Mirai brand, improving fuel efficiency and expanding range compared to the original Sedan 2014 model.[111]

Criticism

Some commentators believe that hydrogen fuel cell cars will never become economically competitive with other technologies[112][113][114] or that it will take decades for them to become profitable.[75][115] Elon Musk, CEO of battery-electric vehicle maker Tesla Motors, stated in 2015 that fuel cells for use in cars will never be commercially viable because of the inefficiency of producing, transporting and storing hydrogen and the flammability of the gas, among other reasons.[116]

In 2012, Lux Research, Inc. issued a report that stated: "The dream of a hydrogen economy ... is no nearer". It concluded that "Capital cost ... will limit adoption to a mere 5.9 GW" by 2030, providing "a nearly insurmountable barrier to adoption, except in niche applications". The analysis concluded that, by 2030, PEM stationary market will reach $1 billion, while the vehicle market, including forklifts, will reach a total of $2 billion.[115] Other analyses cite the lack of an extensive hydrogen infrastructure in the U.S. as an ongoing challenge to Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle commercialization.[68]

In 2014, Joseph Romm, the author of The Hype About Hydrogen (2005), said that FCVs still had not overcome the high fueling cost, lack of fuel-delivery infrastructure, and pollution caused by producing hydrogen. "It would take several miracles to overcome all of those problems simultaneously in the coming decades."[117] He concluded that renewable energy cannot economically be used to make hydrogen for an FCV fleet "either now or in the future."[112] Greentech Media's analyst reached similar conclusions in 2014.[118] In 2015, Clean Technica listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.[119] So did Car Throttle.[120]

A 2019 video by Real Engineering noted that, notwithstanding the introduction of vehicles that run on hydrogen, using hydrogen as a fuel for cars does not help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation. The 95% of hydrogen still produced from fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, and producing hydrogen from water is an energy-consuming process. Storing hydrogen requires more energy either to cool it down to the liquid state or to put it into tanks under high pressure, and delivering the hydrogen to fueling stations requires more energy and may release more carbon. The hydrogen needed to move a FCV a kilometer costs approximately 8 times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance.[121] A 2020 assessment concluded that hydrogen vehicles are still only 38% efficient, while battery EVs are 80% efficient.[122]

Buses

As of August 2011[update], there were about 100 fuel cell buses in service around the world.[123] Most of these were manufactured by UTC Power, Toyota, Ballard, Hydrogenics, and Proton Motor. UTC buses had driven more than 970,000 km (600,000 mi) by 2011.[124] Fuel cell buses have from 39% to 141% higher fuel economy than diesel buses and natural gas buses.[107][125]

As of 2019[update], the NREL was evaluating several current and planned fuel cell bus projects in the U.S.[126]

Trains

In 2018, the first fuel cell-powered trains, the Alstom Coradia iLint multiple units, began running on the Buxtehude–Bremervörde–Bremerhaven–Cuxhaven line in Germany.[127] These trains offer the advantages of electric trains over Diesel locomotives and DMU’s in eliminating smokestack emissions from the trains themselves without the use of electrification by overhead catenerary infrastructure.[128] Such trains have been ordered or are being tested in Sweden[129] and the UK.[130]

Trucks

In December 2020, Toyota and Hino Motors, together with Seven-Eleven (Japan), FamilyMart and Lawson announced that they have agreed to jointly consider introducing light-duty fuel cell electric trucks (light-duty FCETs).[131] Lawson started testing for low temperature delivery at the end of July 2021 in Tokyo, using a Hino Dutro in which the Toyota Mirai fuel cell is implemented. FamilyMart started testing in Okazaki city.[132]

In August 2021, Toyota announced their plan to make fuel cell modules at its Kentucky auto-assembly plant for use in zero-emission big rigs and heavy-duty commercial vehicles. They plan to begin assembling the electrochemical devices in 2023.[133]

In October 2021, Daimler Truck's fuel cell based truck received approval from German authorities for use on public roads.[134]

Forklifts

A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck) is a fuel cell-powered industrial forklift truck used to lift and transport materials. In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in the US,[135] of which 500 received funding from DOE (2012).[136][137] Fuel cell fleets are operated by various companies, including Sysco Foods, FedEx Freight, GENCO (at Wegmans, Coca-Cola, Kimberly Clark, and Whole Foods), and H-E-B Grocers.[138] Europe demonstrated 30 fuel cell forklifts with Hylift and extended it with HyLIFT-EUROPE to 200 units,[139] with other projects in France[140][141] and Austria.[142] Pike Research projected in 2011 that fuel cell-powered forklifts would be the largest driver of hydrogen fuel demand by 2020.[143]

Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum-powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts.[144][145] Fuel cell-powered forklifts can provide benefits over battery-powered forklifts as they can be refueled in 3 minutes and they can be used in refrigerated warehouses, where their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The FC units are often designed as drop-in replacements.[146][147]

Motorcycles and bicycles

In 2005, a British manufacturer of hydrogen-powered fuel cells, Intelligent Energy (IE), produced the first working hydrogen-run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel 160 km (100 mi) in an urban area, at a top speed of 80 km/h (50 mph).[148] In 2004 Honda developed a fuel cell motorcycle that utilized the Honda FC Stack.[149][150]

Other examples of motorbikes[151] and bicycles[152] that use hydrogen fuel cells include the Taiwanese company APFCT's scooter[153] using the fueling system from Italy's Acta SpA[154] and the Suzuki Burgman scooter with an IE fuel cell that received EU Whole Vehicle Type Approval in 2011.[155] Suzuki Motor Corp. and IE have announced a joint venture to accelerate the commercialization of zero-emission vehicles.[156]

Airplanes

In 2003, the world's first propeller-driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown. The fuel cell was a stack design that allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the plane's aerodynamic surfaces.[157] Fuel cell-powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) include a Horizon fuel cell UAV that set the record distance flown for a small UAV in 2007.[158] Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The fuel cell demonstrator airplane, as it was called, used a proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which was coupled to a conventional propeller.[159]

In 2009, the Naval Research Laboratory's (NRL's) Ion Tiger utilized a hydrogen-powered fuel cell and flew for 23 hours and 17 minutes.[160] Fuel cells are also being tested and considered to provide auxiliary power in aircraft, replacing fossil fuel generators that were previously used to start the engines and power on board electrical needs, while reducing carbon emissions.[161][162][failed verification] In 2016 a Raptor E1 drone made a successful test flight using a fuel cell that was lighter than the lithium-ion battery it replaced. The flight lasted 10 minutes at an altitude of 80 metres (260 ft), although the fuel cell reportedly had enough fuel to fly for two hours. The fuel was contained in approximately 100 solid 1 square centimetre (0.16 sq in) pellets composed of a proprietary chemical within an unpressurized cartridge. The pellets are physically robust and operate at temperatures as warm as 50 °C (122 °F). The cell was from Arcola Energy.[163]

Lockheed Martin Skunk Works Stalker is an electric UAV powered by solid oxide fuel cell.[164]

Boats

The world's first fuel cell boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5 kW net output. Amsterdam introduced fuel cell-powered boats that ferry people around the city's canals.[165]

Submarines

The Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface.

The U212A is a non-nuclear submarine developed by German naval shipyard Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft.[166] The system consists of nine PEM fuel cells, providing between 30 kW and 50 kW each. The ship is silent, giving it an advantage in the detection of other submarines.[167] A naval paper has theorized about the possibility of a nuclear-fuel cell hybrid whereby the fuel cell is used when silent operations are required and then replenished from the Nuclear reactor (and water).[168]

Portable power systems

Portable fuel cell systems are generally classified as weighing under 10 kg and providing power of less than 5 kW.[169] The potential market size for smaller fuel cells is quite large with an up to 40% per annum potential growth rate and a market size of around $10 billion, leading a great deal of research to be devoted to the development of portable power cells.[170] Within this market two groups have been identified. The first is the microfuel cell market, in the 1-50 W range for power smaller electronic devices. The second is the 1-5 kW range of generators for larger scale power generation (e.g. military outposts, remote oil fields).

Microfuel cells are primarily aimed at penetrating the market for phones and laptops. This can be primarily attributed to the advantageous energy density provided by fuel cells over a lithium-ion battery, for the entire system. For a battery, this system includes the charger as well as the battery itself. For the fuel cell this system would include the cell, the necessary fuel and peripheral attachments. Taking the full system into consideration, fuel cells have been shown to provide 530Wh/kg compared to 44 Wh/kg for lithium ion batteries.[170] However, while the weight of fuel cell systems offer a distinct advantage the current costs are not in their favor. while a battery system will generally cost around $1.20 per Wh, fuel cell systems cost around $5 per Wh, putting them at a significant disadvantage.[170]

As power demands for cell phones increase, fuel cells could become much more attractive options for larger power generation. The demand for longer on time on phones and computers is something often demanded by consumers so fuel cells could start to make strides into laptop and cell phone markets. The price will continue to go down as developments in fuel cells continues to accelerate. Current strategies for improving micro fuel cells is through the use of carbon nanotubes. It was shown by Girishkumar et al. that depositing nanotubes on electrode surfaces allows for substantially greater surface area increasing the oxygen reduction rate.[171]

Fuel cells for use in larger scale operations also show much promise. Portable power systems that use fuel cells can be used in the leisure sector (i.e. RVs, cabins, marine), the industrial sector (i.e. power for remote locations including gas/oil wellsites, communication towers, security, weather stations), and in the military sector. SFC Energy is a German manufacturer of direct methanol fuel cells for a variety of portable power systems.[172] Ensol Systems Inc. is an integrator of portable power systems, using the SFC Energy DMFC.[173] The key advantage of fuel cells in this market is the great power generation per weight. While fuel cells can be expensive, for remote locations that require dependable energy fuel cells hold great power. For a 72-h excursion the comparison in weight is substantial, with a fuel cell only weighing 15 pounds compared to 29 pounds of batteries needed for the same energy.[169]

Other applications

• Providing power for base stations or cell sites[174][175]
• Distributed generation
• Emergency power systems are a type of fuel cell system, which may include lighting, generators and other apparatus, to provide backup resources in a crisis or when regular systems fail. They find uses in a wide variety of settings from residential homes to hospitals, scientific laboratories, data centers,[176]
• Telecommunication[177] equipment and modern naval ships.
• An uninterrupted power supply (UPS) provides emergency power and, depending on the topology, provide line regulation as well to connected equipment by supplying power from a separate source when utility power is not available. Unlike a standby generator, it can provide instant protection from a momentary power interruption.
• Base load power plants
• Hybrid vehicles, pairing the fuel cell with either an ICE or a battery.
• Notebook computers for applications where AC charging may not be readily available.
• Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g. a belt clip that charges a cell phone or PDA).
• Smartphones, laptops and tablets.
• Small heating appliances[178]
• Food preservation, achieved by exhausting the oxygen and automatically maintaining oxygen exhaustion in a shipping container, containing, for example, fresh fish.[179]
• Breathalyzers, where the amount of voltage generated by a fuel cell is used to determine the concentration of fuel (alcohol) in the sample.[180]
• Carbon monoxide detector, electrochemical sensor.

Fueling stations

Main articles: Hydrogen station and Hydrogen highway

According to FuelCellsWorks, an industry group, at the end of 2019, 330 hydrogen refueling stations were open to the public worldwide.[181] As of June 2020, there were 178 publicly available hydrogen stations in operation in Asia.[182] 114 of these were in Japan.[182] There were at least 177 stations in Europe, and about half of these were in Germany.[183][184] There were 44 publicly accessible stations in the US, 42 of which were located in California.[185]

A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build.[186]

Main articles: Hydrogen economy and Methanol economy

In 2012, fuel cell industry revenues exceeded $1 billion market value worldwide, with Asian pacific countries shipping more than 3/4 of the fuel cell systems worldwide.[187] However, as of January 2014, no public company in the industry had yet become profitable.[188] There were 140,000 fuel cell stacks shipped globally in 2010, up from 11,000 shipments in 2007, and from 2011 to 2012 worldwide fuel cell shipments had an annual growth rate of 85%.[189] Tanaka Kikinzoku expanded its manufacturing facilities in 2011.[190] Approximately 50% of fuel cell shipments in 2010 were stationary fuel cells, up from about a third in 2009, and the four dominant producers in the Fuel Cell Industry were the United States, Germany, Japan and South Korea.[191] The Department of Energy Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance found that, as of January 2011, stationary fuel cells generated power at approximately $724 to $775 per kilowatt installed.[192] In 2011, Bloom Energy, a major fuel cell supplier, said that its fuel cells generated power at 9–11 cents per kilowatt-hour, including the price of fuel, maintenance, and hardware.[193][194]

Industry groups predict that there are sufficient platinum resources for future demand,[195] and in 2007, research at Brookhaven National Laboratory suggested that platinum could be replaced by a gold-palladium coating, which may be less susceptible to poisoning and thereby improve fuel cell lifetime.[196] Another method would use iron and sulphur instead of platinum. This would lower the cost of a fuel cell (as the platinum in a regular fuel cell costs around US$1,500, and the same amount of iron costs only around US$1.50). The concept was being developed by a coalition of the John Innes Centre and the University of Milan-Bicocca.[197] PEDOT cathodes are immune to monoxide poisoning.[198]

In 2016, Samsung "decided to drop fuel cell-related business projects, as the outlook of the market isn't good".[199]

• 2005: Georgia Institute of Technology researchers used triazole to raise the operating temperature of PEM fuel cells from below 100 °C to over 125 °C, claiming this will require less carbon-monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel.[200]
• 2008: Monash University, Melbourne used PEDOT as a cathode.[32]
• 2009: Researchers at the University of Dayton, in Ohio, showed that arrays of vertically grown carbon nanotubes could be used as the catalyst in fuel cells.[201] The same year, a nickel bisdiphosphine-based catalyst for fuel cells was demonstrated.[202]
• 2013: British firm ACAL Energy developed a fuel cell that it said can run for 10,000 hours in simulated driving conditions.[203] It asserted that the cost of fuel cell construction can be reduced to $40/kW (roughly $9,000 for 300 HP).[204]
• 2014: Researchers in Imperial College London developed a new method for regeneration of hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFCs.[205] They recovered 95–100% of the original performance of a hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFC. They were successful in rejuvenating a SO2 contaminated PEFC too.[206] This regeneration method is applicable to multiple cell stacks.[207]

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• Animation – how a fuel cell works
• Fuel Cell Origins: 1840–1890
• EERE: Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program
• Thermodynamics of electrolysis of water and hydrogen fuel cells
• DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package: "Fuel Cells"

The company's first outlets were in Dallas, named "Tote'm Stores" because customers "toted" away their purchases. Some stores featured "native" totem poles in front of the store. In 1946, the chain's name was changed from "Tote'm" to "7-Eleven" to reflect the company's new, extended hours, 7:00 am to 11:00 pm, seven days per week.[4] In November 1999, the corporate name of the US company was changed from "The Southland Corporation" to "7-Eleven Inc."[5][6]

In 1927, Southland Ice Company employee John Jefferson Green began selling ice, then he started selling eggs, milk, and bread from one of 16 ice house storefronts in Dallas, with permission from one of Southland's founding directors, Joe C. Thompson Sr.[7] Although small grocery stores and general merchandisers were available, Thompson theorized that selling products such as bread and milk in convenience stores would reduce the need for customers to travel long distances for basic items. Thompson eventually bought the Southland Ice Company and turned it into the Southland Corporation, which oversaw several locations in the Dallas area.[4]

In 1928, a manager named Jenna Lira brought a totem pole as a souvenir from Alaska and placed it in front of her store. The pole served as a marketing tool for the company, as it attracted a great deal of attention. Soon, executives added totem poles in front of every store and eventually adopted an Alaska Native-inspired theme for their stores. Later on, the stores began operating under the name "Tote'm Stores". In the same year, the company began constructing gas stations in some of its Dallas locations as an experiment. Joe Thompson also provided a distinct characteristic to the company's stores, training the staff so that people would receive the same quality and service in every store. Southland also started to have a uniform for its ice station service boys. This became the major factor in the company's success as a retail convenience store.[citation needed]

In 1931, the Great Depression affected the company, sending it toward bankruptcy. Nevertheless, the company continued its operations through re-organization and receivership. A Dallas banker, W. W. Overton Jr., also helped to revive the company's finances by selling the company's bonds for seven cents on the dollar. This brought the company's ownership under the control of a board of directors.[8]

In 1946, in an effort to continue the company's post-war recovery, the name of the franchise was changed to 7-Eleven to reflect the stores' new hours of operation (7 am to 11 pm), which were unprecedented at the time. In 1963, 7-Eleven experimented with a 24-hour schedule in Austin, Texas, after an Austin store stayed open all night to satisfy customer demand.[4] Later on, 24-hour stores were established in Fort Worth and Dallas, Texas, as well as Las Vegas, Nevada.[9] In 1971, Southland acquired convenience stores of the former Pak-A-Sak chain owned by Graham Allen Penniman Sr. (1903–1985), of Shreveport, Louisiana.[10][11]

With the purchase in 1963 of 126 Speedee Mart (all already open 7–11) franchised convenience stores in California, the company entered the franchise business. The company signed its first area licensing agreement in 1968 with Garb-Ko, Inc. of Saginaw, Michigan, which became the first U.S. domestic area 7-Eleven licensee.

In the late 1980s, Southland Corporation was threatened by a rumored corporate takeover, prompting the Thompson family to take steps to convert the company into a private model by buying out public shareholders in a tender offer.[12] In December 1987, John Philp Thompson Sr., the chairman and CEO of 7-Eleven, completed a $5.2 billion management buyout of the company.[13] The buyout suffered from the effects of the 1987 stock market crash and after failing initially to raise high yield debt financing, the company was required to offer a portion of stock as an inducement to invest in the company's bonds.[14][15]

Various assets, such as the Chief Auto Parts chain,[16] the ice division,[17] and hundreds of store locations,[18] were sold between 1987 and 1990 to relieve debt incurred during the buyout. This downsizing also resulted in numerous metropolitan areas losing 7-Eleven stores to rival convenience store operators. In October 1990, the heavily indebted Southland Corp. filed a pre-packaged Chapter 11 bankruptcy in order to transfer control of 70% of the company to Japanese affiliate Ito-Yokado.[19]

Southland exited bankruptcy in March 1991, after a cash infusion of $430 million from Ito-Yokado and Seven-Eleven Japan. These two Japanese entities now controlled 70% of the company, with the founding Thompson family retaining 5 percent.[20] In 1999, Southland Corp. changed its name to 7-Eleven, Inc., citing the divestment of operations other than 7-Eleven.[21] In 2005, Seven-Eleven Japan made a tender offer and 7-Eleven, Inc. became its wholly owned subsidiary.[3] In 2007, Seven & i Holdings announced that it would be expanding its U.S. operations, with an additional 1,000 7-Eleven stores in the U.S.

For the 2010 rankings, 7-Eleven climbed to the No. 3 spot in Entrepreneur magazine's 31st Annual Franchise 500, "the first and most comprehensive ranking in the world". This was the 17th year 7-Eleven was named in the top 10.

Also in 2010, the first "green" 7-Eleven store opened in DeLand, Florida. The store features U.S. Green Building Council's (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) elements. Also, the environmentally friendly design brings the store savings in energy costs. That same year, 7-Eleven went mobile with the launch of the Slurpee drink's iPhone and Android Application (App). The Slurpee drink app made it easy to find 7-Eleven stores and provides driving directions. The following year, 7-Eleven celebrated its 40,000th store opening and within two years of that milestone opened its 60,000th store.

In 2020, 7-Eleven announced it would purchase Speedway for $21 billion.[22]

In 2021, 7-Eleven rolled out a $70 million ad campaign, their largest investment in advertising in years, doubling their market spending from the previous year. The commercials, directed by Harmony Korine, are to reflect the "evolution" of the chain's store format, drawing attention to, in part, the fact that "this isn't just gas station food, there's real restaurant quality food at 7-Eleven", according to CMO Marissa Jarrantt.[23][24][25]

7-Eleven in the United States sells Slurpee[26] drinks, a partially frozen soft drink introduced in 1965 (Oklahoma's stores were known as Icy Drink until 2020[27]),[28] and Big Gulp beverages, introduced in 1976.[29][30] Other products include: 7-Select[31] private-brand products,[32] coffee, fresh-made daily sandwiches, fresh fruit, salads, bakery items, hot and prepared foods, gasoline, dairy products, carbonated beverages and energy drinks, juices, donuts, financial services, and product delivery services.

7-Eleven is known for its relatively large drink sizes and 24-hour accessibility. 7-Eleven offers beverages in sizes as large as 128 ounces (3785 mL) (Team Gulp). These beverage sizes were all among the largest sold soft drinks when they were introduced.[33] 7-Eleven has often been associated with these large sodas in popular culture. For example, Mayor Michael Bloomberg's proposed ban on large sodas in New York City was frequently referred to as the 'Big Gulp ban'.[34]

In 2012, 7-Eleven changed the size of the Double Gulp from 64 ounces to 50 ounces (1478 mL). The older style cups were too wide at the bottom and did not fit beverage holders in cars. This was not a reaction to the large soda ban proposal, according to a spokesperson.[35] In February 2020, they opened a cashierless location at the 7-Eleven headquarters in Irving, Texas.[36]

On August 30, 2021, 7-Eleven and Thailand's CP Group opened the first 7-Eleven store in Phnom Penh’s Chroy Changvar district. The company hinted at plans to open at least six more stores in Phnom Penh in 2021.[37] According to plans, products from local small- and medium-sized enterprises (SME) sold in 7-Eleven in Cambodia will comprise at least 50 percent of the stock.

Hong Kong

7-Eleven first opened in Hong Kong in 1981, when it was a British colony. As of July 2019[update], it operates as a subsidiary of the DFI Retail Group. It is popularly called tsat jai (七仔, meaning "little seven") or se fun (些粉, based on the English "seven"). As of 2012, 7-Eleven had 964 stores in Hong Kong, of which 563 were operated by franchisees.[38] Hong Kong reportedly has the second-highest density of 7-Eleven stores, after Macao. All 7-Eleven stores in Hong Kong accept the ubiquitous Octopus card as a method of payment.[39] They also accept payments for utility bills and public housing rent.[40]

In November 1980, Southland Corporation and Hong Kong conglomerate Jardine Matheson signed a franchise agreement to bring 7-Eleven to the territory.[41] The first 7-Eleven shop opened in Happy Valley on April 3, 1981.[42][43] The chain expanded aggressively across Hong Kong throughout the 1980s. The 50th store opened in Kwai Chung on October 6, 1983, while the 200th was inaugurated by Simon Keswick at Tai Po Centre on May 7, 1987.[44][45] The stores were sold to Dairy Farm, part of the Jardine Matheson group, in 1989.[46]

Octopus card readers were introduced in all 7-Eleven stores in July 1999, although at first these could only be used to add value to the card.[47][48] In September 2004, the number of locations in Hong Kong was substantially boosted when Dairy Farm acquired Daily Stop, a rival convenience store chain, from SCMP Retailing (HK). The chain's 84 shops, located mainly in MTR and Kowloon–Canton Railway stations (as well as shopping centers and housing estates), were converted to 7-Eleven stores.[49][50]

In 2009, a 7-Eleven location in Quarry Bay opened with a hot food counter, called "7 Café", selling traditional Hong Kong street food and milk tea.[51] This feature was subsequently extended to select other 7-Eleven locations across Hong Kong under the "Daily Café" and "Hot Shot" brands.

India

On 7 October 2021, Reliance Retail announced its partnership with 7-Eleven to open its stores in India.[52] The announcement came a day after Future Group, another retail conglomerate, announced the end of its partnership with 7-Eleven, citing the inability to meet the target of opening stores and payment of franchisee fees. The first 7-Eleven in India opened in Mumbai on 9 October 2021 at Blue Fortuna, Military Road, Marol, Andheri East. Initially opened as a 24 hours outlet it was soon curtailed to shut its doors at 12:00am.[53]

Indonesia

In 2008, 7-Eleven announced plans to expand its business in Indonesia through a master franchise agreement with Modern Sevel Indonesia. Modern Sevel Indonesia's initial plans were to focus on opening stores in Jakarta, targeting densely populated commercial and business areas.[54] There were 190 7-Eleven stores in Indonesia as of 2014[update] which then reduced to only 166 stores in September 2016.

7-Eleven then closed its doors in Indonesia in 2017,[55] citing low sales.

Israel

In October 2021, it was announced throughout Israeli media that 7-Eleven signed a contract with the company Electra Consumer Products, a division of Israeli company "Electra", and will open their first location in the country in 2022, in Dizengoff Square. It was also announced that tens of additional locations will open in the next three years.

Japan

Japan has more 7-Eleven locations than anywhere else in the world, where they often bear the name of its holding company Seven & i Holdings. Of the 71,000 stores around the globe, 21,215 stores (nearly 30% of global stores) are in Japan,[56] with 2,824 stores in Tokyo alone.[57] On September 1, 2005, Seven & I Holdings Co., Ltd., a new holding company, became the parent company of 7-Eleven, Ito-Yokado, and Denny's Japan.

As of July 2019[update], 7-Eleven has stores in all 47 prefectures of Japan with the opening of 14 new locations in Okinawa Prefecture.[58]

The aesthetics of the store are somewhat different from that of 7-Eleven stores in other countries as the stores offer a wider selection of products and services. 7-Eleven stores in Japan are also popular among tourists from other countries, as the Seven Bank ATM machines at branches will accept foreign debit and credit cards for withdrawing cash in Japanese yen.[59]

Following the example of other convenience stores in Japan, 7-Eleven has solar panels and LEDs installed in about 1,400 of its stores.[60]

In July 2019, 7-Eleven launched then almost immediately suspended a mobile payment service, 7pay. The service was hacked upon launch, and attackers were able to spend money from affected customers' accounts.[61]

Laos

On August 31, 2020, 7-Eleven and Thailand's CP Group announced a 30-year master franchise agreement. The first Laotian 7-Eleven is expected to open in the country's capital, Vientiane, in 2022.[62][63][64][65][66]

Macau

7-Eleven entered the Macau market in 2005 under the ownership of Dairy Farm, the same conglomeration group operating Hong Kong's 7-Eleven. With only 25.9 square kilometers, Macau has 45 stores, making it the single market with the highest density of 7-Eleven stores, containing one store per 0.65 square kilometers.

Mainland China

7-Eleven opened its first store in China in Shenzhen, Guangdong in 1992 and later expanded to Beijing in 2004, Tianjin and Shanghai in 2009, Chengdu[67] in 2011, Qingdao in 2012, Chongqing in 2013, Hangzhou and Ningbo in 2017, Nanjing in 2018, and Wuhan, Xi'an, and Fuzhou in 2019. In China's 7-Eleven stores where Slurpees are offered, the Chinese name 思乐冰 (sīlèbīng) is used. They also offer a wide array of warm food, including traditional items like steamed buns, and stores in Chengdu offer a full variety of onigiri (饭团). Beverages, alcohol, candy, periodicals, and other convenience items are available as well. The majority of these stores are open for 24 hours a day. As of September 2021, 7-Eleven has 2,582 stores in Mainland China.[68]

Malaysia

Malaysian 7-Eleven stores are owned by 7-Eleven Malaysia Sdn. Bhd., which operates 2,225 stores nationwide. 7-Eleven in Malaysia was incorporated on June 4, 1984, by the Antah holding, The first 7-Eleven store was opened in October 1984, in Jalan Bukit Bintang, Kuala Lumpur.[69][70]

Philippines

In the Philippines, 7-Eleven was run by the Philippine Seven Corporation (PSC). Its first store, located at the corner of EDSA and Kamias Road in Quezon City, opened on February 29, 1984. On May 2, 1996, the stockholders of both PSC and PSPC approved the merger of the two companies to advance PSC group's expansion. On October 30, 1996, Securities and Exchange Commission approved the merger and PSPC was then absorbed by PSC as the surviving entity. In 2000, President Chain Store Corporation (PCSC) of Taiwan, also a licensee of 7-Eleven, purchased the majority shares of PSC and thus formed a strategic alliance for the convenience store industry within the area.

In February 2009, 7-Eleven has signed a non-exclusive contract with Chevron Philippines to open its stores in selected Caltex gas stations nationwide.[71]

In 2012, they opened their first store outside of Luzon in Cebu City, which soon expanded to the other parts of Cebu as well as its neighboring provinces.[71] It was followed with the branch openings in Bacolod City in 2013, Iloilo City in 2014, Davao City in 2015, and Cagayan de Oro City in 2016. The number of stores eventually spread from these major cities to smaller towns and provinces near them.

In February 2020, 7-Eleven and GCash, the mobile wallet of Alipay and Globe, have teamed up for the introduction of a new payment option for physical purchases: scan-to-pay (STP) via a barcode feature in the GCash app. This enables the customers to generate their unique barcodes through the GCash app and allow the cashier to scan their barcodes to complete the transaction.[72]

In 2020, due to the effect of COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines, the Philippine Seven Corporation (PSC) slashed the store openings to 200 from the original 400 stores planned to be open due to financial difficulties from the growing pandemic situation.[73] On July 11, 2021, coinciding with the 94th founding anniversary of the convenience store chain, 7-Eleven Philippines opened its 3,000th store in Meycauayan, Bulacan.[74]

Singapore

In Singapore, 7-Eleven forms the largest chain of convenience stores island-wide. There are 393 7-Eleven stores scattered throughout the country as of February 2018. Stores in Singapore are operated by Dairy Farm International Holdings, franchised under a licensing agreement with 7-Eleven Incorporated. The first 7-Eleven store in Singapore was opened along Upper Changi Road in 1983, and in 1986 the first franchised 7-Eleven store (under the Jardine Matheson Group) was opened. The license was then acquired by Cold Storage Singapore, a subsidiary of the Dairy Farm Group, in 1989.

In 2006, Shell Singapore and 7-Eleven agreed to rebrand all 68 of its Shell Select convenience stores into 7-Eleven. The partnership was terminated in October 2017, and the remaining 52 7-Eleven stores in Shell petrol stations will be gradually rebranded back into Shell Select.[75]

South Korea

7-Eleven has a major presence in the Republic of Korea convenience store market, where it competes with CU (store), GS25 (formerly LG25), and independent competitors. There are 11,067 7-Eleven stores in the Republic of Korea; with only Japan and Thailand hosting more stores. The first 7-Eleven store in the Republic of Korea opened in 1989 in Songpa-gu in Seoul with a franchise license under the Lotte Group. In January 2010, Lotte Group acquired the Buy the Way convenience store chain and rebranded its 1,000 stores under the 7-Eleven brand.

In 2021, 7-Eleven announced that it would be working with a South Korean nonprofit to create jobs and franchising opportunities for North Korean defectors in South Korea.[76]

Taiwan

7-Eleven is the largest convenience store chain In Taiwan, and is owned by President Chain Store Corporation under Uni-President Enterprises Corporation. The first fourteen stores opened in 1979, and struggled to make a profit. Southland Corporation partnered with Uni-President to modernize the stores. However, business was still slow, and Uni-President opted to stock Asian foods. In 1986, 7-Eleven made its first profit in Taiwan.[77] The 5,000th store was opened in July 2014.[78] In January 2018, an experimental and unstaffed shop branded the X-Store was opened.[79] 7-Eleven announced plans to operate a combination store in partnership with Domino's Pizza in February 2019.[80][81]

In the early 2000s, 7-Eleven and Dentsu introduced a corporate mascot named Open-Chan (Open 小將), an extraterrestrial dog who wears a rainbow-shaped crown from a fictional planet known as Planet Open to be a "cartoon spokesperson" for the store chain in Taiwan. Open-Chan quickly grew in popularity among Taiwanese children soon after its initial debut.[82][83] After Open-Chan's subsequent rise to prominence in Taiwan, the character was even introduced in Japan.[84]

Thailand

The first Thai 7-Eleven opened in 1989 on Patpong Road in Bangkok. The chain consists of both company-owned (45%) and franchised shops (55%).[85] CP ALL Public Company Limited is the 7-Eleven owner and franchisor in Thailand. As of July 2020[update], there were 11,983 stores in Thailand, employing 170,000.[85] In 2018, 7-Eleven generated 335,532 million baht in income for CP.[85][86] 7-Eleven holds a 70% market share in the convenience store category, opposed by some 7,000 other convenience stores (e.g., FamilyMart) and 400,000 "mom and pop" shops.[85][87] Thailand has the second largest number of 7-Eleven stores after Japan.[88] In an effort to reduce plastic pollution the parent company of 7-Eleven stores in Thailand, CP All Public Company, announced their intent in November 2018 to reduce and eventually end the use of single-use plastic bags.[89] As of January 2020[update], 7-Eleven—along with 42 other Thai retailers—will stop giving single-use plastic bags to customers.[90]

United Arab Emirates

Seven & I Holdings announced in June 2014 that they had agreed a contract with Seven Emirates Investment LLC to open the first Middle Eastern 7-Eleven in Dubai, United Arab Emirates during the summer of 2015.[91][92][93] The company also said that they had plans to open about 100 stores in the country by the end of 2017.[91][93] The first store was opened in October 2015. The country has 13 stores as of January 2018.

Vietnam

The first 7-Eleven store in Vietnam opened in 2017, making Vietnam the 17th country to host the world's largest convenience store chain. Seven System Vietnam (SSV) is the Master Franchisee of the 7-Eleven convenience store system in Vietnam, based in Ho Chi Minh City.

Europe

Norway

7-Eleven has been established in Norway since 13 September 1986, when the first store opened in Oslo. In 2004 Reitan Convenience, a branch of the Norwegian Reitan Group bought the rights to use the 7-Eleven brand in Norway, Sweden and Denmark and since then has massively grown the number of operating shops in Scandinavia.

Sweden

7-Eleven entered Sweden in March 1984 with their first branch in Stockholm. Reitan acquired the brands right after 1997, and now has almost 200 stores throughout Sweden.

Denmark

The first 7-Eleven store in Denmark was opened at Østerbro in Copenhagen on September 14, 1993. There are 183 stores, mostly in Copenhagen, Aarhus, Aalborg, and Odense, including eight stores at Copenhagen Central Station. In Denmark, 7-Eleven has an agreement with Shell, with a nationwide network of Shell/7-Eleven service stations, and an agreement with DSB to have 7-Eleven stores at most S-train stations.

Former locations

United Kingdom

During the 1980s, 7-Eleven convenience stores were based in London and the South East of England. The first shop opened in Sydenham, South East London in 1985. The United Kingdom had 57 7-Eleven stores when it was sold to Budgens in October 1997.[94][95] The company announced in 2014 they had planned to return to the UK market,[96] but this did not progress beyond its announcement. In 2019, the company announced again it had planned to return, but as of June 2021 no stores had been opened.[94]

North America

Canada

The first 7-Eleven store to open in Canada was in Calgary, Alberta, on June 29, 1969. There are 640 7-Eleven stores in Canada as of 2017[update].[97] Winnipeg, Manitoba, has the world's largest number of Slurpee consumers, with an estimated 1,500,000 Slurpees sold since the first 7-Eleven opened on March 21, 1970.[98] All 7-Eleven locations in Canada are corporate operated.[99] Like its U.S. counterparts every July 11 the stores offer free Slurpees on "7-Eleven Day".

A limited number of 7-Eleven locations feature gas stations from Shell Canada, Petro-Canada, or Esso. In November 2005, 7-Eleven started offering the Speak Out Wireless cellphone service in Canada. 7-Eleven locations also featured CIBC ATMs—in June 2012, these machines were replaced with ATMs operated by Scotiabank. 7-Eleven abandoned the Ottawa, Ontario, market in December 2009 after selling its six outlets to Quickie Convenience Stores, a regional chain. Following concerns over the fate of Speak Out Wireless customers, Quickie offered to assume existing SpeakOut customers and phones into its Good2Go cellphone program.[100][101] 7-Eleven is similarly absent from the Quebec market due to its saturation by chains like Alimentation Couche-Tard and Boni-soir, and by independent dépanneurs.

In March 2016, 7-Eleven acquired 148 Imperial Oil-owned Esso gas stations in Alberta and British Columbia for C$2.8 billion. Most of their convenience stores were converted to 7-Eleven stores, and they remain supplied by Esso. Some locations were not converted to 7-Eleven; these locations operate under the transitional banner "smartstop 24/7" with their existing store formats, typically inherited from the previous On the Run chain.[102][103]

Mexico

In Mexico, the first 7-Eleven store opened in 1976 in Monterrey in association with Grupo Chapa (now Iconn) and 7-Eleven, Inc. under the name Super 7. In 1995, Super 7 was renamed to 7-Eleven, which now has 1,835 stores in several areas of the country. When stores are located within classically designed buildings (such as in Centro Histórico buildings) or important landmarks, the storefront logo is displayed in monochrome with gold or silver lettering.

United States

Supermarket News ranked 7-Eleven's North American operations No. 11 in the 2007 "Top 75 North American Food Retailers," based on the 2006 fiscal year estimated sales of US$15.0 billion.[104] Based on the 2005 revenue, 7-Eleven is the 24th largest retailer in the United States.[105] As of 2013[update], 8,144 7-Eleven franchised units exist across the United States. Franchise fees range between US$10,000 – $1,000,000 and the ongoing royalty rate varies.[106] 7-Eleven America has its headquarters in the Cypress Waters development in Irving, Texas.[107][108] Small-size Slurpees are free on "7-Eleven Day", on July 11. This holiday first became widely celebrated on July 11, 2008, when first discovered by J. Brabank and C. Johnson. One exception is 2020, when the COVID-19 pandemic caused that year's cancellation. 7 Rewards members get a free medium Slurpee in their app to use in July that year.

7-Eleven Stores of Oklahoma have operated independently since 1953 under an agreement with William Brown. It is now led by his son, James Brown.[109] As part of this franchise agreement, 7-Elevens in Oklahoma bear slight differences to stores elsewhere: for instance, products such as Big Bite hot dogs are not sold there, the Slurpee is branded as the "Icy Drink", and Oklahoma stores operate their own loyalty program called "Thx!", which does not intersect with the national 7Rewards system. On March 2, 2020, 7-Eleven, Inc. announced it had officially closed on the acquisition of over 100 of these independently operated 7-Eleven stores in Oklahoma. All of these 100 stores were in the greater Oklahoma City metropolitan area. This acquisition increased the total number of 7-Eleven stores in the US and Canada to nearly 9800.[110][111]

In April 2021, 7-Eleven launched the "Take it to Eleven" ad campaign. The slogan was partially inspired by the chain's name, but also the term "up to eleven" made popular in the film This is Spinal Tap. The slogan was only for the main 7-Eleven brand and not A-Plus or Stripes.[112]

Fuel

In the U.S., many 7-Eleven locations used to have filling stations with gasoline distributed by Citgo, which in 1983 was purchased by Southland Corporation. 50% of Citgo was sold in 1986 to Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A., and the remaining 50% was acquired in 1990. Although Citgo was the predominant partner of 7-Eleven, other oil companies are also co-branded with 7-Eleven, including Fina, Exxon, Gulf, Marathon, BP, Shell, Chevron (some former TETCO convenience stores were co-branded with Chevron, and Texaco prior to the 7-Eleven purchase in late 2012), Sunoco, and Amoco. Conoco is the largest 7-Eleven licensee in North America.[113] The Pittsburgh market alone—where 7-Eleven is the market leader by store count but third behind Sheetz and GetGo in revenue—7-Eleven currently offers fuel from Exxon, Gulf, Marathon (both legacy 7-Eleven locations and y), BP, and Sunoco (the latter two being from 7-Eleven's acquisitions of their company-owned-and-operated locations in the area) and also having previously offered Citgo and Pennzoil at some locations. In more recent years, some 7-Eleven locations sell 7-Eleven branded fuel without a Big Oil brand, much like 7-Eleven's primary rival Circle K has done in recent years.

7-Eleven signed an agreement with ExxonMobil in December 2010 for the acquisition of 183 sites in Florida. This was followed by the acquisition of 51 ExxonMobil sites in North Texas in August 2011.[114][115]

On August 2, 2020, Seven & I Holdings announced to buy Speedway LLC for $21 billion.[116] The deal closed on May 14, 2021. 7-Eleven was ordered by U.S. antitrust regulators to divest 293 stores across 20 states. 124 stores were sold to Anabi Oil, 106 stores were sold to CrossAmerica Partners LP and 63 stores were sold to Jacksons Food Stores.[117]

South America

Brazil

In Brazil, during the 1990s, 7-Eleven had 17 stores in the city of São Paulo in a joint venture between Esteve S.A. Exportadora and Southland Corporation,[118][119] but all closed due to high competition.[120][121] In 2018, the company entered into partnership talks to operate convenience stores at gas stations operated by Petrobras Distribuidora in the country, but this did not progress beyond.[122]

Oceania

Australia

The first 7-Eleven in Australia opened on August 24, 1977, in the Melbourne suburb of Oakleigh, Victoria. The majority of stores are located in metropolitan areas, particularly in central business district areas. Stores in suburban areas often operate as petrol stations and most are owned and operated as franchises, with a central administration. 7-Eleven bought Mobil's remaining Australian petrol stations in 2010,[123] converting them to 7-Eleven outlets, resulting in an immediate and unprecedented overnight major expansion of the brand. In South Australia all Mobil petrol stations were sold to Peregrine Corporation and branded as On the Run petrol stations.[124]

7-Eleven stores in Australia sell a wide range of items, including daily newspapers, drinks, confectionery, and snack foods. They sell gift cards, including three types of pre-paid Visa cards. The chain has partnered with Bankwest, placing an ATM in each of their stores nationwide. Each year on November 7, 7-Eleven promotes "7-Eleven Day" by giving away a free Slurpee to customers.[125]

In April 2014, 7-Eleven announced plans to start operating stores in Western Australia, with 11 stores planned to operate within the first year and a total of 75 stores established within five years. The first store was opened on October 30, 2014, in the city of Fremantle.[126][127] The country has 675 stores as of January 2018.

In April 2022, 7-Eleven Australia settled a class-action lawsuit from its franchisees for $A98 million, amid claims that it had misled franchisees about the profitability of its business model.[128]

Wage theft

In August 2015, Fairfax Media and the ABC's Four Corners programme reported on the employment practices of certain 7-Eleven franchisees in Australia.[129][130] The investigation found that many 7-Eleven employees were being underpaid at rates of around A$10 to A$14 per hour before tax, well under the legally-required minimum award rate of A$24.69 per hour.[129]

Franchisees underpaying their staff would typically maintain rosters and pay records that appeared to show the employee being paid the legally-required rate; however, these records only included half of the hours the employee actually worked in a week. Employees were then paid on the basis of these records, resulting in them effectively being paid half the legally-required rate.[129]

It was also reported that workers were often not paid loadings and penalty rates that they are legally entitled to, for working overtime hours, nights, weekends, and public holidays.[129]

After these reports came to light and received widespread attention, some employees had alleged to Fairfax Media that they had begun to be paid correctly through the 7-Eleven payroll system; however, they were then asked by the franchisee to pay back half their wages in cash.[131] 7-Eleven subsequently announced they would fund an inquiry to investigate instances of wage fraud. The inquiry was conducted by an independent panel chaired by former Australian Competition & Consumer Commission chairman Allan Fels, and with the support of professional services firm Deloitte.[132] The inquiry invited submissions from current and former 7-Eleven employees who allege they have been underpaid, and assess each individual claim.[133]

In September 2015, chairman Russ Withers and chief executive Warren Wilmot announced they were resigning from the company. Deputy chairman Michael Smith replaced Withers, while Bob Baily was appointed as interim chief executive.[134][135][136]

The Four Corners investigation into 7-Eleven won a Walkley Award in 2015.[137] In December 2015, Stewart Levitt of law firm Levitt Robinson Solicitors, who featured prominently in the Four Corners program and the Dr Brendan French defamation case,[138] announced a potential class action lawsuit against 7-Eleven head office on behalf of franchisees who had allegedly been lured into signing on with 7-Eleven by false representations.[139] This action was mired itself in controversy after Levitt Robinson was forced to retract misleading statements in advertising to the franchisees.[140]

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• Historic Documentation