Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is an air pollutant that is a concern for people's health when levels in air are high. PM2.5 are tiny particles in the air that reduce visibility and cause the air to appear hazy when levels are elevated. Outdoor PM2.5 levels are most likely to be elevated on days with little or no wind or air mixing. The New York State Departments of Health (DOH) and Environmental Conservation (DEC) alert the public by issuing a PM2.5 Health Advisory when PM2.5 concentrations in outdoor air are expected to be unhealthy for sensitive groups. Show
What is Particulate Matter 2.5 (PM2.5)?The term fine particles, or particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5), refers to tiny particles or droplets in the air that are two and one half microns or less in width. Like inches, meters and miles, a micron is a unit of measurement for distance. There are about 25,000 microns in an inch. The widths of the larger particles in the PM2.5 size range would be about thirty times smaller than that of a human hair. The smaller particles are so small that several thousand of them could fit on the period at the end of this sentence. How can PM2.5 affect my health?Particles in the PM2.5 size range are able to travel deeply into the respiratory tract, reaching the lungs. Exposure to fine particles can cause short-term health effects such as eye, nose, throat and lung irritation, coughing, sneezing, runny nose and shortness of breath. Exposure to fine particles can also affect lung function and worsen medical conditions such as asthma and heart disease. Scientific studies have linked increases in daily PM2.5 exposure with increased respiratory and cardiovascular hospital admissions, emergency department visits and deaths. Studies also suggest that long term exposure to fine particulate matter may be associated with increased rates of chronic bronchitis, reduced lung function and increased mortality from lung cancer and heart disease. People with breathing and heart problems, children and the elderly may be particularly sensitive to PM2.5. Where does PM2.5 come from?There are outdoor and indoor sources of fine particles. Outside, fine particles primarily come from car, truck, bus and off-road vehicle (e.g., construction equipment, snowmobile, locomotive) exhausts, other operations that involve the burning of fuels such as wood, heating oil or coal and natural sources such as forest and grass fires. Fine particles also form from the reaction of gases or droplets in the atmosphere from sources such as power plants. These chemical reactions can occur miles from the original source of the emissions. In New York State, some of the fine particles measured in the air are carried by wind from out-of-state sources. Because fine particles can be carried long distances from their source, events such as wildfires or volcanic eruptions can raise fine particle concentrations hundreds of miles from the event. PM2.5 is also produced by common indoor activities. Some indoor sources of fine particles are tobacco smoke, cooking (e.g., frying, sautéing, and broiling), burning candles or oil lamps, and operating fireplaces and fuel-burning space heaters (e.g., kerosene heaters). Is there an air quality standard for PM2.5 in outdoor air?Yes, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established National Ambient Air Quality Standards for PM2.5 in 1997 and revised them in 2006 and 2012. National Ambient Air Standards are established to be protective of public health. The short-term standard (24-hour or daily average) is 35 micrograms per cubic meter of air (µg/m3) and the long-term standard (annual average) is 12 µg/m3. A microgram is a unit of weight. There are a million micrograms in a gram, and a pound is equal to about 450 grams. How will I know when PM2.5 levels are, or will be, elevated outside?Outdoor air levels of fine particles increase during periods of stagnant air (very little wind and air mixing), when the particles are not carried away by wind, or when winds bring polluted air into the state from sources outside the state. In general, as the levels of PM2.5 in outdoor air increase, the air appears hazy and visibility is reduced. These conditions are similar in appearance to high humidity or fog. The New York State Department Environmental Conservation informs the public whenever fine particle concentrations in outdoor air are expected to be elevated. Every weekday morning the Department of Environmental Conservation will review weather conditions and data from their air monitoring stations to determine if, for that day or the following day, fine particle levels are expected to exceed levels considered unhealthy for sensitive groups. If it is likely that this level will be exceeded, the agency will contact the media so that a Particulate Matter Health Advisory can be carried on afternoon and evening broadcasts. The Department of Environmental Conservation also provides PM2.5 monitoring data and PM2.5 forecasts on its web site. Are there ways to reduce my exposure to PM2.5?When outdoor levels of PM2.5 are elevated, going indoors may reduce your exposure, although some outdoor particles will come indoors. If there are significant indoor sources of PM2.5, levels inside may not be lower than outside. Some ways to reduce exposure are to limit indoor and outdoor activities that produce fine particles (for example, burning candles indoors or open burning outdoors) and avoid strenuous activity in areas where fine particle levels are high. Who can I contact if I have more questions?If you would like additional information about the health effects of fine particles, you can call the NYS Department of Health at 518-402-7800 or 800-458-1158. To find out if an advisory has been issued or to learn more about air quality, you can call the Department of Environmental Conservation's toll-free air quality hotline: 1-800-535-1345 or visit their Air Quality Index (AQI) website where you can also view state PM2.5 maps and real-time monitoring data for PM2.5. Outdoor air pollution is a major environmental health problem affecting everyone in low-, middle-, and high-income countries. Ambient (outdoor) air pollution in both cities and rural areas was estimated to cause 4.2 million premature deaths worldwide per year in 2016; this mortality is due to exposure to fine particulate matter of 2.5 microns or less in diameter (PM2.5), which cause cardiovascular and respiratory disease, and cancers. People living in low- and middle-income countries disproportionately experience the burden of outdoor air pollution with 91% (of the 4.2 million premature deaths) occurring in low- and middle-income countries, and the greatest burden in the WHO South-East Asia and Western Pacific regions. The latest burden estimates reflect the very significant role air pollution plays in cardiovascular illness and death. More and more, evidence demonstrating the linkages between ambient air pollution and the cardiovascular disease risk is becoming available, including studies from highly polluted areas. WHO estimates that in 2016, some 58% of outdoor air pollution-related premature deaths were due to ischaemic heart disease and stroke, while 18% of deaths were due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and acute lower respiratory infections respectively, and 6% of deaths were due to lung cancer. Some deaths may be attributed to more than one risk factor at the same time. For example, both smoking and ambient air pollution affect lung cancer. Some lung cancer deaths could have been averted by improving ambient air quality, or by reducing tobacco smoking. A 2013 assessment by WHO’s International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that outdoor air pollution is carcinogenic to humans, with the particulate matter component of air pollution most closely associated with increased cancer incidence, especially lung cancer. An association also has been observed between outdoor air pollution and increase in cancer of the urinary tract/bladder. Addressing all risk factors for noncommunicable diseases – including air pollution – is key to protecting public health. Most sources of outdoor air pollution are well beyond the control of individuals and demands concerted action by local, national and regional level policy-makers working in sectors like transport, energy, waste management, urban planning, and agriculture. There are many examples of successful policies in transport, urban planning, power generation and industry that reduce air pollution:
In addition to outdoor air pollution, indoor smoke from household air pollution is a serious health risk for some 2.6 billion people who cook and heat their homes with biomass fuels and coal. Some 3.8 million premature deaths were attributable to household air pollution in 2016. Almost all of the burden was in low-middle-income countries. Household air pollution is also a major source of outdoor air pollution in both urban and rural areas, accounting for up to 50% in some regions of the world. The WHO Global air quality guidelines offer global guidance on thresholds and limits for key air pollutants that pose health risks. The Guidelines apply worldwide to both outdoor and indoor environments and are based on expert evaluation of current scientific evidence for:
The Guidelines also include qualitative good practice recommendations for black carbon/elemental carbon, ultrafine particles (<=1um) and particles derived from sand and dust storms. Particulate matter (PM)Definition and principal sourcesPM is a common proxy indicator for air pollution. It affects more people than any other pollutant. The major components of PM are sulfate, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black carbon, mineral dust and water. It consists of a complex mixture of solid and liquid particles of organic and inorganic substances suspended in the air. While particles with a diameter of 10 microns or less, (≤ PM10) can penetrate and lodge deep inside the lungs, the even more health-damaging particles are those with a diameter of 2.5 microns or less, (≤ PM2.5). PM2.5 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the blood system. Chronic exposure to particles contributes to the risk of developing cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, as well as of lung cancer. Air quality measurements are typically reported in terms of daily or annual mean concentrations of PM10 particles per cubic meter of air volume (m3). Routine air quality measurements typically describe such PM concentrations in terms of micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3). When sufficiently sensitive measurement tools are available, concentrations of fine particles (PM2.5 or smaller), are also reported. Health effectsThere is a close, quantitative relationship between exposure to high concentrations of small particulates (PM10 and PM2.5) and increased mortality or morbidity, both daily and over time. Conversely, when concentrations of small and fine particulates are reduced, related mortality will also go down – presuming other factors remain the same. This allows policy-makers to project the population health improvements that could be expected if particulate air pollution is reduced. Small particulate pollution has health impacts even at very low concentrations – indeed no threshold has been identified below which no damage to health is observed. Therefore, the WHO Global guideline limits aimed to achieve the lowest concentrations of PM possible. WHO Air quality guideline valuesParticulate matter (PM)Guideline valuesFine particulate matter (PM2.5)5 μg/m3 annual mean Coarse particulate matter (PM10)15 μg/m3 annual mean In addition to guideline values, the WHO Global air quality guidelines provide interim targets for concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 aimed at promoting a gradual shift from high to lower concentrations. If these interim targets were to be achieved, significant reductions in risks for acute and chronic health effects from air pollution can be expected. Achieving the guideline values, however, should be the ultimate objective. The effects of PM on health occur at levels of exposure currently being experienced by many people both in urban and rural areas and in developed and developing countries – although exposures in many fast-developing cities today are often far higher than in developed cities of comparable size. In low- and middle- income countries, exposure to pollutants in and around homes from the household combustion of polluting fuels on open fires or traditional stoves for cooking, heating and lighting further increases the risk for air pollution-related diseases, including acute lower respiratory infections, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer. There are serious risks to health not only from exposure to PM, but also from exposure to ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). As with PM, concentrations are often highest largely in the urban areas of low- and middle-income countries. Ozone is a major factor in asthma morbidity and mortality, while nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide also can play a role in asthma, bronchial symptoms, lung inflammation and reduced lung function. Ozone (O3)Guideline valuesO3100 μg/m3, 8-hour daily maximum* 60 μg/m3 8-hour mean, peak season** * 99th percentile, (i.e. 3-4 exceedance days per year) ** Peak season is defined as an average of daily maximum 8-hour mean O3 concentration in the six consecutive months with the highest six-month running average O3 concentration Definition and principal sourcesOzone at ground level – not to be confused with the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere – is one of the major constituents of photochemical smog. It is formed by the reaction with sunlight (photochemical reaction) of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx) from vehicle and industry emissions and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by vehicles, solvents and industry. As a result, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during periods of sunny weather. Health effectsExcessive ozone in the air can have a marked effect on human health. It can cause breathing problems, trigger asthma, reduce lung function and cause lung diseases. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)Guideline valuesNO210 μg/m3 annual mean The current WHO guideline value of 10 µg/m3 (annual mean) was set to protect the public from the health effects of gaseous nitrogen dioxide. Definition and principal sourcesNO2 is the main source of nitrate aerosols, which form an important fraction of PM2.5 and, in the presence of ultraviolet light, of ozone. The major sources of anthropogenic emissions of NO2 are combustion processes (heating, power generation, and engines in vehicles and ships). Health effectsEpidemiological studies have shown that symptoms of bronchitis in asthmatic children increase in association with long-term exposure to NO2. Reduced lung function growth is also linked to NO2 at concentrations currently measured (or observed) in cities of Europe and North America. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)Guideline valuesSO2Studies indicate that a proportion of people with asthma experience changes in pulmonary function and respiratory symptoms after periods of exposure to SO2 . Health effects are now known to be associated with much lower levels of SO2 than previously believed. A greater degree of protection is needed. Although the causality of the effects of low concentrations of SO2 is still uncertain, reducing SO2 concentrations is likely to decrease exposure to co-pollutants. Definition and principal sourcesSO2 is a colourless gas with a sharp odour. It is produced from the burning of fossil fuels (coal and oil) and the smelting of mineral ores that contain sulfur. The main anthropogenic source of SO2 is the burning of sulfur-containing fossil fuels for domestic heating, power generation and motor vehicles. Health effectsSO2 can affect the respiratory system and the functions of the lungs, and causes irritation of the eyes. Inflammation of the respiratory tract causes coughing, mucus secretion, aggravation of asthma and chronic bronchitis and makes people more prone to infections of the respiratory tract. Hospital admissions for cardiac disease and mortality increase on days with higher SO2 levels. When SO2 combines with water, it forms sulfuric acid; this is the main component of acid rain which is a cause of deforestation. WHO responseWHO Member States recently adopted a resolution (2015) and a road map (2016) for an enhanced global response to the adverse health effects of air pollution. WHO is custodial agency for 3 air pollution-related Sustainable Development Goals indicators:
WHO develops and produces air quality guidelines recommending exposure limits to key air pollutants (indoor and outdoor). WHO creates detailed health-related assessments of different types of air pollutants, including particulates and black carbon particles, and ozone. WHO produces evidence regarding the linkage of air pollution to specific diseases, such as cardiovascular and respiratory diseases and cancers, as well as burden of disease estimates from existing air pollution exposures, at country, regional, and global levels. WHO develops tools such as AirQ+ for assessing the health impacts from various pollutants, but also the Health Economic Assessment Tool (HEAT) to assess walking and cycling interventions, the Green+ tool to raise importance of green space and health, the Sustainable Transport Health Assessment Tool (STHAT) and the Integrated Transport and Health Impact Modelling Tool (ITHIM). WHO has developed a Clean Household Energy Solutions Toolkit (CHEST) to provide countries and programmes with the tools needed to create or evaluate policies that expand clean household energy access and use, which is particularly important as pollutants released in and around the household (household air pollution) contribute significantly to ambient pollution. CHEST tools include modules on needs assessment, guidance on standards and testing for household energy devices, monitoring and evaluation, and materials to empower the health sector to tackle household air pollution. WHO assists Member States in sharing information on successful approaches, on methods of exposure assessment and monitoring of health impacts of pollution. WHO is leading the Joint Task Force on the Health Aspects of Air Pollution within the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution to assess the health effects of such pollution and to provide supporting documentation. The WHO co-sponsored Pan European Programme on Transport Health and Environment (PEP), has built a model of regional, Member State, and multisectoral cooperation for mitigation of air pollution and other health impacts in the transport sector, as well as tools for assessing the health benefits of such mitigation measures. |
Which is not a method to reduce the emissions of particulate matter?
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