What type of transmission will have a zero in a special bit in the destination media access control MAC address Singlecast?

Ethernet technology relies on MAC addresses to function. MAC addresses are used to identify the frame source and destination.

MAC Address and Hexadecimal (7.2.1)

As discussed in detail in Chapter 5, “Number Systems,” in networking, IPv4 addresses are represented using the decimal (base 10) number system and the binary (base 2) number system. IPv6 addresses and Ethernet addresses are represented using the hexadecimal (base 16) number system. To understand hexadecimal, you must first be very familiar with binary and decimal.

The hexadecimal numbering system uses the numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A to F.

An Ethernet MAC address consists of a 48-bit binary value. Hexadecimal is used to identify an Ethernet address because a single hexadecimal digit represents 4 binary bits. Therefore, a 48-bit Ethernet MAC address can be expressed using only 12 hexadecimal values.

Figure 7-5 compares the equivalent decimal and hexadecimal values for binary 0000 to 1111.

Figure 7-5 Decimal to Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

Given that 8 bits (1 byte) is a common binary grouping, binary 00000000 to 11111111 can be represented in hexadecimal as the range 00 to FF, as shown in the Figure 7-6.

Figure 7-6 Selected Examples of Decimal to Binary to Hexadecimal Conversions

When using hexadecimal, leading zeros are always displayed to complete the 8-bit representation. For example, in Figure 7-6, the binary value 0000 1010 is shown to be 0A in hexadecimal.

Hexadecimal numbers are often represented by a value preceded by 0x (for example, 0x73) to distinguish between decimal and hexadecimal values in documentation.

Hexadecimal may also be represented using a subscript 16 or by using the hex number followed by an H (for example, 73H).

You might have to convert between decimal and hexadecimal values. If such conversions are required, convert the decimal or hexadecimal value to binary and then to convert the binary value to either decimal or hexadecimal as appropriate. See Chapter 5 for more information.

Ethernet MAC Address (7.2.2)

In an Ethernet LAN, every network device is connected to the same shared medium. The MAC address is used to identify the physical source and destination devices (NICs) on the local network segment. MAC addressing provides a method for device identification at the data link layer of the OSI model.

An Ethernet MAC address is a 48-bit address expressed using 12 hexadecimal digits, as shown in Figure 7-7. Because 1 byte equals 8 bits, we can also say that a MAC address is 6 bytes in length.

Figure 7-7 Ethernet MAC Address in Bits, Hextets, and Bytes

All MAC addresses must be unique to the Ethernet device or Ethernet interface. To ensure uniqueness, every vendor that sells Ethernet devices must register with the IEEE to obtain a unique 6-digit hexadecimal (that is, 24-bit or 3-byte) code called an organizationally unique identifier (OUI).

When a vendor assigns a MAC address to a device or to an Ethernet interface, the vendor must do as follows:

• Use its assigned OUI as the first 6 hexadecimal digits.

• Assign a unique value in the last 6 hexadecimal digits.

Therefore, an Ethernet MAC address consists of a 6-digit hexadecimal vendor OUI code followed by a 6-digit hexadecimal vendor-assigned value, as shown in Figure 7-8.

Figure 7-8 The Ethernet MAC Address Structure

For example, say that Cisco needs to assign a unique MAC address to a new device, and the IEEE has assigned Cisco the OUI 00-60-2F. Cisco would configure the device with a unique vendor code such as 3A-07-BC. Therefore, the Ethernet MAC address of that device would be 00-60-2F-3A-07-BC.

It is the responsibility of a vendor to ensure that no two of its devices are assigned the same MAC address. However, it is possible for duplicate MAC addresses to exist because of mistakes made during manufacturing, mistakes made in some virtual machine implementation methods, or modifications made using one of several software tools. In such a case, it is necessary to modify the MAC address with a new NIC or make modifications by using software.

Frame Processing (7.2.3)

Sometimes a MAC address is referred to as a burned-in address (BIA) because the address is hard coded into read-only memory (ROM) on the NIC. This means that the address is permanently encoded into the ROM chip.

When the computer boots up, the NIC copies its MAC address from ROM into RAM. When a device is forwarding a message to an Ethernet network, as shown in Figure 7-9, the Ethernet header includes the following:

• Source MAC address: This is the MAC address of the source device NIC.

• Destination MAC address: This is the MAC address of the destination device NIC.

Figure 7-9 The Source Prepares a Frame to Send to the Destination

When a NIC receives an Ethernet frame, it examines the destination MAC address to see if it matches the physical MAC address that is stored in RAM. If there is no match, the device discards the frame. In Figure 7-10, H2 and H4 discard the frame. The MAC address matches for H4, so H4 passes the frame up the OSI layers, where the de-encapsulation process takes place.

Figure 7-10 All Devices Receive the Frame, but Only the Destination Processes It

Any device that is the source or destination of an Ethernet frame will have an Ethernet NIC and, therefore, a MAC address. This includes workstations, servers, printers, mobile devices, and routers.

Unicast MAC Address (7.2.4)

In Ethernet, different MAC addresses are used for Layer 2 unicast, broadcast, and multicast communications.

A unicast MAC address is a unique address that is used when a frame is sent from a single transmitting device to a single destination device.

In Figure 7-11, the destination MAC address and the destination IP address are both unicast.

Figure 7-11 Unicast Frame Transmission

A host with IPv4 address 192.168.1.5 (source) requests a web page from the server at IPv4 unicast address 192.168.1.200. For a unicast packet to be sent and received, a destination IP address must be in the IP packet header. A corresponding destination MAC address must also be present in the Ethernet frame header. The IP address and MAC address combine to deliver data to one specific destination host.

The process that a source host uses to determine the destination MAC address associated with an IPv4 address is known as Address Resolution Protocol (ARP). The process that a source host uses to determine the destination MAC address associated with an IPv6 address is known as Neighbor Discovery (ND).

Broadcast MAC Address (7.2.5)

An Ethernet broadcast frame is received and processed by every device on an Ethernet LAN. The features of an Ethernet broadcast are as follows:

• It has the destination MAC address FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF in hexadecimal (or 48 1s in binary).

• It is flooded out all Ethernet switch ports except the incoming port.

• It is not forwarded by a router.

If the encapsulated data is an IPv4 broadcast packet, this means the packet contains a destination IPv4 address that has all 1s in the host portion. This numbering in the address means that all hosts on that local network (broadcast domain) receive and process the packet.

In Figure 7-12, the destination MAC address and destination IP address are both broadcast addresses.

Figure 7-12 Broadcast Frame Transmission

The source host sends an IPv4 broadcast packet to all devices on its network. The IPv4 destination address is a broadcast address, 192.168.1.255. When the IPv4 broadcast packet is encapsulated in the Ethernet frame, the destination MAC address is the broadcast MAC address FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF in hexadecimal (or 48 1s in binary).

DHCP for IPv4 is an example of a protocol that uses Ethernet and IPv4 broadcast addresses. However, not all Ethernet broadcasts carry IPv4 broadcast packets. For example, ARP requests do not use IPv4, but the ARP message is sent as an Ethernet broadcast.

Multicast MAC Address (7.2.6)

An Ethernet multicast frame is received and processed by a group of devices on the Ethernet LAN that belong to the same multicast group. The features of an Ethernet multicast frame are as follows:

• It has destination MAC address 01-00-5E when the encapsulated data is an IPv4 multicast packet and destination MAC address 33-33 when the encapsulated data is an IPv6 multicast packet.

• There are other reserved multicast destination MAC addresses for when the encapsulated data is not IP, such as Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) and Link Layer Discovery Protocol (LLDP).

• It is flooded out all Ethernet switch ports except the incoming port, unless the switch is configured for multicast snooping.

• It is not forwarded by a router unless the router is configured to route multicast packets.

If the encapsulated data is an IP multicast packet, the devices that belong to a multicast group are assigned a multicast group IP address. The range of IPv4 multicast addresses is 224.0.0.0 to 239.257.257.257. The range of IPv6 multicast addresses begins with ff00::/8. Because a multicast address represents a group of addresses (sometimes called a host group), it can only be used as the destination of a packet. The source is always a unicast address.

As with the unicast and broadcast addresses, a multicast IP address requires a corresponding multicast MAC address to deliver frames on a local network. The multicast MAC address is associated with, and uses addressing information from, the IPv4 or IPv6 multicast address.

In Figure 7-13, the destination MAC address and destination IP address are both multicast addresses.

Figure 7-13 Multicast Frame Transmission

Routing protocols and other network protocols use multicast addressing. Applications such as video and imaging software may also use multicast addressing, although multicast applications are not as common.

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Compared to legacy Ethernet hubs, Ethernet switches improve efficiency and overall network performance. Although traditionally most LAN switches have operated at Layer 2 of the OSI model, an increasing number of Layer 3 switches are now being implemented. This section focuses on Layer 2 switches. Layer 3 switches are beyond the scope of this book.

Switch Fundamentals (7.3.1)

Now that you know all about Ethernet MAC addresses, it is time to talk about how a switch uses these addresses to forward (or discard) frames to other devices on a network. If a switch just forwarded every frame it received out all ports, your network would be so congested that it would probably come to a complete halt.

A Layer 2 Ethernet switch uses Layer 2 MAC addresses to make forwarding decisions. It is completely unaware of the data (protocol) being carried in the data portion of the frame, such as an IPv4 packet, an ARP message, or an IPv6 ND packet. The switch makes its forwarding decisions based solely on the Layer 2 Ethernet MAC addresses.

An Ethernet switch examines its MAC address table to make a forwarding decision for each frame. In contrast, a legacy Ethernet hub repeats bits out all ports except the incoming port. In Figure 7-14, the four-port switch was just powered on. The table shows the MAC address table, which has not yet learned the MAC addresses for the four attached PCs.

Figure 7-14 Switch Powers Up with an Empty MAC Address Table

Switch Learning and Forwarding (7.3.2)

A switch dynamically builds its MAC address table by examining the source MAC addresses of the frames received on a port. The switch forwards frames by searching for a match between the destination MAC address in a frame and an entry in the MAC address table.

Examine the Source MAC Address

Every frame that enters a switch is checked for new information to learn. It does this by examining the source MAC address of the frame and the port number where the frame entered the switch. If the source MAC address does not exist, it is added to the table, along with the incoming port number. If the source MAC address does exist, the switch updates the refresh timer for that entry. By default, most Ethernet switches keep an entry in the table for 5 minutes.

In Figure 7-15, for example, PC-A is sending an Ethernet frame to PC-D. The table shows that the switch adds the MAC address for PC-A to the MAC address table.

Figure 7-15 Switch Learns the MAC Address for PC-A

Find the Destination MAC Address

If the destination MAC address is a unicast address, the switch looks for a match between the destination MAC address of the frame and an entry in its MAC address table. If the destination MAC address is in the table, the switch forwards the frame out the specified port. If the destination MAC address is not in the table, the switch forwards the frame out all ports except the incoming port. This is called an unknown unicast.

As shown in Figure 7-16, the switch does not have the destination MAC address in its table for PC-D, so it sends the frame out all ports except port 1.

Figure 7-16 Switch Forwards the Frame Out All Other Ports

Filtering Frames (7.3.3)

As a switch receives frames from different devices, it is able to populate its MAC address table by examining the source MAC address of every frame. When the MAC address table of the switch contains the destination MAC address, the switch is able to filter the frame and forward out a single port.

In Figure 7-17, PC-D is replying to PC-A. The switch sees the MAC address of PC-D in the incoming frame on port 4. The switch then puts the MAC address of PC-D into the MAC address table associated with port 4.

Figure 7-17 Switch Learns the MAC Address for PC-D

Next, because the switch has the destination MAC address for PC-A in the MAC address table, it sends the frame only out port 1, as shown in Figure 7-18.

Figure 7-18 Switch Forwards the Frame Out the Port Belonging to PC-A

Next, PC-A sends another frame to PC-D, as shown in Figure 7-19. The MAC address table already contains the MAC address for PC-A; therefore, the 5-minute refresh timer for that entry is reset. Next, because the switch table contains the destination MAC address for PC-D, it sends the frame out only port 4.

Figure 7-19 Switch Forwards the Frame Out the Port Belonging to PC-D

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Switches may have the capability to implement various forwarding methods to increase performance in a network.

Frame Forwarding Methods on Cisco Switches (7.4.1)

As you learned in the previous section, a switch uses its MAC address table to determine which port to use to forward frames. With Cisco switches, there are actually two frame forwarding methods, and there are good reasons to use one instead of the other, depending on the situation.

Switches use one of the following forwarding methods for switching data between network ports:

• Store-and-forward switching: With this frame forwarding method, the switch receives the entire frame and computes the CRC. The switch uses a mathematical formula, based on the number of bits (1s) in the frame, to determine whether the received frame has an error. If the CRC is valid, the switch looks up the destination address, which determines the outgoing interface. Then the frame is forwarded out the correct port.

• Cut-through switching: With this frame forwarding method, the switch forwards the frame before it is entirely received. At a minimum, the destination address of the frame must be read before the frame can be forwarded.

A big advantage of store-and-forward switching is that the switch determines whether a frame has errors before propagating the frame. When an error is detected in a frame, the switch discards the frame. Discarding frames with errors reduces the amount of bandwidth consumed by corrupt data. Store-and-forward switching is required for quality of service (QoS) analysis on converged networks where frame classification for traffic prioritization is necessary. For example, voice over IP (VoIP) data streams need to have priority over web-browsing traffic.

Figure 7-20 shows the store-and-forward process.

Figure 7-20 Store-and-Forward Switching

Cut-Through Switching (7.4.2)

In cut-through switching, the switch acts on the data as soon as it is received, even if the transmission is not complete. The switch buffers just enough of the frame to read the destination MAC address so that it can determine which port to use to forward the data. The destination MAC address is located in the first 6 bytes of the frame, following the preamble. The switch looks up the destination MAC address in its switching table, determines the outgoing interface port, and forwards the frame on to its destination through the designated switch port. The switch does not perform any error checking on the frame.

Figure 7-21 shows the cut-through switching process.

Figure 7-21 Cut-Through Switching

There are two variants of cut-through switching:

• Fast-forward switching: Fast-forward switching offers the lowest level of latency. With fast-forward switching, the switch immediately forwards a packet after reading the destination address. Because with fast-forward switching the switch starts forwarding before the entire packet has been received, there may be times when packets are relayed with errors. This occurs infrequently, and the destination NIC discards the faulty packet upon receipt. In fast-forward mode, latency is measured from the first bit received to the first bit transmitted. Fast-forward switching is the typical cut-through method of switching.

• Fragment-free switching: In fragment-free switching, the switch stores the first 64 bytes of the frame before forwarding. Fragment-free switching can be viewed as a compromise between store-and-forward switching and fast-forward switching. The reason the switch stores only the first 64 bytes of the frame is that most network errors and collisions occur during the first 64 bytes. Fragment-free switching tries to enhance fast-forward switching by performing a small error check on the first 64 bytes of the frame to ensure that a collision has not occurred before forwarding the frame. Fragment-free switching is a compromise between the high latency and high integrity of store-and-forward switching and the low latency and reduced integrity of fast-forward switching.

Some switches are configured to perform cut-through switching on a per-port basis until a user-defined error threshold is reached, and then they automatically change to store-and-forward. When the error rate falls below the threshold, the port automatically changes back to cut-through switching.

Memory Buffering on Switches (7.4.3)

An Ethernet switch may use a buffering technique to store frames before forwarding them. Buffering may also be used when the destination port is busy due to congestion. The switch stores the frame until it can be transmitted.

As shown in Table 7-2, there are two methods of memory buffering.

Table 7-2 Memory Buffering Methods

Shared memory buffering results in the ability to store larger frames with potentially fewer dropped frames. This is important with asymmetric switching, which allows for different data rates on different ports, such as when connecting a server to a 10 Gbps switch port and PCs to 1 Gbps ports.

Duplex and Speed Settings (7.4.4)

Two of the most basic settings on a switch are the bandwidth (sometimes referred to as speed) and duplex settings for each individual switch port. It is critical that the duplex and bandwidth settings match between the switch port and the connected devices, such as computers or other switches.

Two types of duplex settings are used for communications on an Ethernet network:

• Full-duplex: Both ends of the connection can send and receive simultaneously.

• Half-duplex: Only one end of the connection can send at a time.

Autonegotiation is an optional function on most Ethernet switches and NICs. It enables two devices to automatically negotiate the best speed and duplex capabilities. Full-duplex is chosen if both devices have the capability, along with their highest common bandwidth.

In Figure 7-22, the Ethernet NIC for PC-A can operate in full-duplex or half-duplex and at 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps. PC-A is connected to switch S1 on port 1, which can operate in full-duplex or half-duplex and at 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, or 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps). If both devices are using autonegotiation, the operating mode is full-duplex, at 100 Mbps.

Figure 7-22 Duplex and Speed Settings

Duplex mismatch is one of the most common causes of performance issues on 10/100 Mbps Ethernet links. It occurs when one port on the link operates at half-duplex while the other port operates at full-duplex, as shown in Figure 7-23. In this scenario, S2 will continually experience collisions because S1 keeps sending frames any time it has something to send.

Figure 7-23 Duplex Mismatch

Duplex mismatch occurs when one or both ports on a link are reset, and the autonegotiation process does not result in the two link partners having the same configuration. It also can occur when users reconfigure one side of a link and forget to reconfigure the other. Both sides of a link should have autonegotiation on, or both sides should have it off. Best practice is to configure both Ethernet switch ports as full-duplex.

Auto-MDIX (7.4.5)

At one time, connections between devices required the use of either a crossover cable or a straight-through cable. The type of cable required depended on the type of interconnecting devices. For example, Figure 7-24 identifies the correct cable types required to interconnect a switch to a switch, a switch to a router, a switch to a host, or a router to a host. A crossover cable is used for connecting like devices, and a straight-through cable is used for connecting unlike devices.

Figure 7-24 Cable Types

Most switch devices now support the automatic medium-dependent interface crossover (auto-MDIX) feature. When this feature is enabled, the switch automatically detects the type of cable attached to the port and configures the interfaces accordingly. Therefore, you can use either a crossover cable or a straight-through cable for connections to a copper 10/100/1000 port on a switch, regardless of the type of device on the other end of the connection.

The auto-MDIX feature is enabled by default on switches running Cisco IOS Release 12.2(18)SE or later. However, the feature can be disabled. For this reason, you should always use the correct cable type and should not rely on the auto-MDIX feature. Auto-MDIX can be re-enabled using the mdix auto interface configuration command.

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The following is a summary of the topics in the chapter and their corresponding online modules.

Ethernet Frame

Ethernet operates at the data link layer and the physical layer. Ethernet standards define both the Layer 2 protocols and the Layer 1 technologies. Ethernet operates at the LLC and MAC sublayers of the data link layer. Data encapsulation includes the following: Ethernet frame, Ethernet addressing, and Ethernet error detection. Ethernet LANs use switches that operate in full-duplex. The Ethernet frame fields are Preamble and Start Frame Delimiter, Destination MAC Address, Source MAC Address, EtherType, Data, and FCS.

Ethernet MAC Address

The binary number system uses the digits 0 and 1. Decimal uses 0 through 9. Hexadecimal uses 0 through 9 and the letters A through F. The MAC address is used to identify the physical source and destination devices (NICs) on the local network segment. MAC addressing provides a method for device identification at the data link layer of the OSI model. An Ethernet MAC address is a 48-bit address expressed using 12 hexadecimal digits, or 6 bytes. An Ethernet MAC address consists of a 6-digit hexadecimal vendor OUI code followed by a 6-digit hexadecimal vendor-assigned value. When a device is forwarding a message to an Ethernet network, the Ethernet header includes the source and destination MAC addresses. In Ethernet, different MAC addresses are used for Layer 2 unicast, broadcast, and multicast communications.

The MAC Address Table

A Layer 2 Ethernet switch makes forwarding decisions based solely on Layer 2 Ethernet MAC addresses. The switch dynamically builds its MAC address table by examining the source MAC addresses of the frames received on a port. The switch forwards frames by searching for a match between the destination MAC address in the frame and an entry in the MAC address table. As a switch receives frames from different devices, it is able to populate its MAC address table by examining the source MAC address of each frame. When the MAC address table of the switch contains the destination MAC address, the switch is able to filter the frame and forward it out a single port.

Switch Speeds and Forwarding Methods

Switches use one of two forwarding methods for switching data between network ports: store-and-forward switching or cut-through switching. Two variants of cut-through switching are fast-forward and fragment-free switching. Two methods of memory buffering are port-based memory buffering and shared memory buffering. Two types of duplex settings are used for communications on an Ethernet network: full-duplex and half-duplex. Autonegotiation is an optional function on most Ethernet switches and NICs. It enables two devices to automatically negotiate the best speed and duplex capabilities. Full-duplex is chosen if both devices have the capability, and their highest common bandwidth is chosen. Most switch devices now support the automatic medium-dependent interface crossover (auto-MDIX) feature. When this feature is enabled, the switch automatically detects the type of cable attached to the port and configures the interfaces accordingly.

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The following activities provide practice with the topics introduced in this chapter. The lab is available in the companion Introduction to Networks Labs & Study Guide (CCNAv7) (ISBN 9780136634454). The Packet Tracer activity instructions are also provided in the Labs & Study Guide. The PKA files are available in the online course.

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