Chapter 2: Classical Theories of Emotion Show
 Stanley Schachter was born in Queens, New York. He attended Yale University for art history, eventually switching to psychology. After his undergraduate years, he received a Master’s in Psychology from Yale University and worked closely with Clark Hull (a learning theorist; drive reduction theory). After working for a bit, he attended MIT for a doctoral degree under Kurt Lewin (a Gestalt psychologist and early founder of social psychology). His student peers included other famous social psychologists like Leon Festinger (cognitive dissonance theory), Harold Kelley (covariation model; interdependence theory), and John Thibaut (interdependence theory). When Lewin suddenly died, Festinger took over Lewin’s lab and became Schachter’s doctoral adviser. Eventually, Festinger moved the doctoral program to the University of Michigan, where Schachter was awarded his doctorate in psychology. Schachter held positions at the University of Minnesota and later returned to his roots at Columbia University.
Jerome Singer was born in the Bronx, New York. Singer attended a doctoral program in psychology at the University of Minnesota under his adviser – Stanley Schachter! He held professorships at Penn State University (woo hoo!) and the State University of New York’s Stony Brook. It is important to note that Schachter and Singer were trained as social psychologists, whereas Cannon and Bard were trained as medical doctors and physiologists. Their early academic programs clearly influenced their views of emotion.
Schachter and Singer’s (1962) Two-Factor Theory of Emotion suggests that physiological arousal determines the strength of the emotion, while cognitive appraisal identifies the emotion label. So, in this theory, the “two-factor” represents physiological change and cognitive appraisal change. Figure 5 Model of Schachter-Singer’s Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
Figure 5 above shows their theory. The eliciting event causes a change in physiology and a change in cognitive appraisal. According to this theory, physical arousal occurs first and instigates the cognitive appraisal process. Physiological changes tell us how intensely we are experiencing the emotion. High levels of physiological arousal would represent a strong or intense emotion, whereas low levels of physiological arousal represent a weak or less intense level of arousal. According to Schachter and Singer, we cannot determine the emotion label from our arousal level. This is because most emotions evoke similar physiological responses (heart beating, sweating, pupil dilation). Our cognitive appraisal of the event and of our physiological changes determine the label we attach to our emotional experience. This cognitive appraisal could be quick and automatic or slow and conscious. Our cognitive appraisal determines our behavior changes and subjective feelings. In other words, we don’t know how to behave or how to consciously label our emotion until we appraise the situation! Compare the above two graphical representations of the two-factor theory of emotion. In both figures, the physiological change is the same – our heart rate increases. But, in the top figure, the eliciting event is a bear and in the bottom figure the eliciting event is a romantic partner. So, to correctly label our emotion, we cannot rely on our heart rate. Schachter and Singer would say we notice our heart beating and look around to determine why our heart is racing. If we see a bear, then we label the emotion as fear, run away, and report subjective feelings of fear. But, if we see our romantic partner, then we label the emotion love, approach our partner, and report subjective feelings of love! This suggests that we could potentially pick the wrong eliciting event and identify our emotion incorrectly.
Two-factor Theory of Emotion by Schachter and Singer: this article explains the two-factor theory of emotion, developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer. The theory is also known as Schachter’s two-factor theory. After reading you will understand the basics of this powerful psychology tool. What is the two-factor theory of emotion?The two-factor theory of emotion is a theory that states that emotion is primarily based on two factors: physiological arousal and a subsequent cognitive process. In this process, a person uses his or her immediate environment to look for emotional cues to label the arousal.
Do you want unlimited and ad-free access? DefinitionAccording to the Schachter-Singer theory, a person should feel physiological arousal first and then label it. Physiological arousal includes physical processes of the body, such as perspiration, blushing, trembling, an increased heart rate or looking pale. When the brain isn’t sure why it’s feeling an emotion, it relies on external stimulation to look for a clue as to how to label the emotion. In this case, emotions are misinterpreted. More on this later.
The theory was developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome E. Singer in the 1960s. Other theories about emotion include:
The first two from the list above have long been regarded as the most important theories of emotion. Example of the Two-factor Theory of EmotionA short example to clarify the different elements of the theory. A young man walks alone through the city on Monday evening. Out of nowhere, an older man approaches him from an alley. The young man’s heart rate shoots up immediately and he notices that he is beginning to tremble. These physiological actions are due to the emotion of fear, and the man thinks: I am afraid. The man approaching him is the stimulating event in this story, and the increased heart rate and tremors are part of the physiological arousal. The young man relates these physical processes to the emotion of fear. This is what is meant by cognitive labeling. In this way, the emotion of fear is experienced intensely. Further sample analysisIn the example above, the young man’s environment plays an important role in the interpretation of the physiological processes that he observes in himself. The context, alone in a city center at night, and the unknown man who approaches him contribute to him labeling his experience as fear. Had this happened on a sunny Saturday afternoon, both the physiological processes and the emotions would be labeled differently. Validation of the Two-factor Theory of Emotion studySchachter and Singer conducted a well-known experiment in 1962 to test their emotion theory. The research focus was on whether the same type of physiological arousal might have a different effect based on a person’s context and circumstances. 184 male college students were told they would be given a drug to improve their eyesight. This drug was actually adrenaline, a hormone that is produced during a stress response. The effects of administering adrenaline are an increased heart rate, tremors, rapid breathing and a flushed face. Some of the 184 were informed about the possible side effects of the drug, and some were not. Part of the group also received a placebo. They were all sent to a separate room with a fellow student. This fellow student was instructed to radiate either anger or euphoria. Singer and Schachter found that the people who were not aware they were receiving adrenaline became happier or angrier than the people who were told about the possible side effects. The men who had a euphoric roommate experienced the physiological responses as happiness. The men with an angry roommate experienced the situation as anger and fear. The experiment showed that the participants who had an experience that they could not explain labeled their emotion based on the behavior of the people in their immediate environment. Criticism of the Two-factor Theory of EmotionThe theory of Schachter and Singer is not free from criticism. Fellow researchers have partially or not supported the pair’s results, and others came to conflicting results. For example, another study found that unexplained physical arousal is more likely to trigger negative emotions such as fear, regardless of the state in which it occurs. Another criticism of the Two-factor Theory of Emotion theory is that emotions are sometimes experienced without our thinking about it. Researchers therefore support James-Lange’s suggestion that there are actually physiological differences between emotions.
Get Toolshero updates on new methods, models and theories! Now it’s your turnWhat do you think? Do you recognize the explanation of the Two-factor Theory of Emotion? Do you ever consciously think about your emotions? Do you recognize elements from this theory? What other theories about emotions do you know? Do you have any tips or comments? Share your experience and knowledge in the comments box below. More information
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What is the Schachter two-factor theory of emotion?
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